Use of d¹⁵N and d¹³C Stable Isotope Ratios to Assess Foraging Differences between Moose, Alces alces , and Woodland Caribou, Rangifer tarandus caribou, in Northwestern Ontario

Hillis, T.L.¹, A.B. Cormie², and F.F. Mallory²

¹Department of Zoology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1
² Department of Biology, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario P3E 2C6

Abstract: The ability to determine the effects of foraging competition between ungulate species is usually ascertained through direct observation, stomach content analysis or the spatial relationship of the two species in question. The disadvantage of these techniques is that they only provide an opportunity to identify foraging strategy during a single moment moment in time. Stable isotope analysis (d¹⁵ N and d¹³ C) has been established as a technique for determining long term dietary preferences in mammalian species (Hilderbrand et al. 1996); studies conducted on mammalian herbivores have shown that bone collagen may be affected by the amount of leguminous or woody plants in the animals diet (Cormie and Schwarcz 1996). Moose and caribou are sympatric in the boreal forests of northwestern Ontario but the question as to their occurrence together as foraging competition, antipredator strategy or the results of disturbance remains undetermined.

The relationship of d¹⁵ N and d¹³ C to species were analyzed using the results of cortical bone of the fibia, antler, and jawbone of six woodland caribou and six moose from northwestern Ontario. Samples were prepared as described in Chisholm et al. (1983) and Cormie and Schwarcz (1996). Data were compared using Students t-test to determine if ratios are different between each species. Results will be discussed in relation to current foraging competition theories.

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Caribou Range Occupancy in Northwestern Ontario: Past and Present

G.D. Racey¹ and T. Armstrong²

¹ Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, RR#1 25^th Sideroad, Thunder Bay, Ont. P7C 4T9
² Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 435 James Street, Thunder Bay, Ont. P7E 6S3

Abstract: A zone of continuous caribou distribution was defined for northwestern Ontario. This zone defined the benchmark for measuring the success of future management of habitat and conservation of populations. Inventory of key winter, summer and calving habitats reaffirmed the concept of a dynamic mosaic of habitat tracts that support caribou across the landscape. The historical range recession leading to this current distribution has been associated with resource development, fire and hunting activities over the past 150 years, and numerous attempts at conservation over the last 70 years. The decline was apparently phased according to several cycles of development activity: i) early exploitation in the early to mid - 1800's; ii) isolation and extirpation of southern populations due to rapid changes in forest use and access between 1890 and 1930; and iii) further loss of the southernmost herds due to harvesting of previously in-accessed areas in the 1950's - 1970's. Lessons learned from history support conservation measures that manage caribou at landscape levels, protect southern herds, maintain caribou habitat as part of continuous range, maintain large contiguous tracts of older forest and ensure connectivity between habitat components.

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Body size increases in transplanted Alaskan caribou

Patrick Valkenburg¹, Lawrence J. Van Daele², Ted H. Spraker³, Michael T. Hinkes⁴

¹ ADF&G, 1300 College Road, Fairbanks, Alaska, 99701
²ADF&G, PO Box 1030, Dillingham, AK 99576
³ ADF&G, 34828 Kalifornsky Beach Rd, Ste B, Soldotna, AK 99669
⁴ USF&WS, Togiak National Wildlife Refuge, PO Box 270, Dillingham, AK 99576

Abstract: Since 1958, caribou have been transplanted to 4 areas of Alaska that either had no history of grazing by Rangifer or were ranges unoccupied by caribou for at least 50 years. Parent stock was obtained from the Nelchina Herd for three of the transplants, and from the Northern Alaska Peninsula for the fourth. Within a few years, body size and weight of transplanted caribou was significantly greater than caribou in the parent herds. However, caribou transplanted from the Northern Alaska Peninsula Herd did not approach the weight and size of caribou transplanted from the Nelchina Herd despite similar length growing seasons on the new ranges (Kenai Peninsula and the Nushagak Peninsula). From this, we hypothesize that Northern Peninsula caribou have a lower genetic potential for body size than Nelchina caribou although antler size potential appears to be similar in both herds.

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Development and Verification of a Fugacity-Based Bioaccumulation model for Terrestrial Ecosystems: An Application to a Lichen-Caribou-Wolf Food-Chain of the Northwest Territories

Barry C. Kelly and Frank A.P.C Gobas

School of Resource and Environmental Management, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6

Abstract: A fugacity-based bioaccumulation modeling approach is presented to assess the exposure of organic contaminants to terrestrial organisms. The essence of the model is to characterize the extent of food absorption and food digestion, which are crucial factors controlling biomagnification. The effect of food digestion on biomagnification is determined through static head-space analyses on field collected food and fecal samples. Dietary intake and absorption data are available from the literature for many terrestrial organisms. These data, along with head-space analyses results are used to paramaterize the gastro-intestinal magnification factors in the model. In June of 1997, lichens and caribou fecal samples were collected from the calving grounds of the Bathurst caribou herd (66º 55'N 109º 50' W). Environmental concentrations of organics in the samples were measured at the Great Lakes Institute and are used for model verification. Our semi-empirical modelling approach is applied to an arctic terrestrial ecosystem to predict internal concentrations of organic chemicals in barren ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus), and wolf (Canis lupus) from observed concentrations in two common lichen species (Cladina rangiferina and Cetraria nivalis) found throughout the grazing range of the Bathurst caribou herd.

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Antlers in relation to age, condition, and fecundity of caribou

D.C. Thomas and H.J. Armbruster

Canadian Wildlife Service, 4999-98 Ave., # 200, Edmonton, AB T6B 2X3

Abstract: Considering the importance of antlers in dominance and rank of caribou, few data are available on their size and weight. We examined the relationship between weight of antlers and age, body size, fat reserves, and fecundity in a sample of 1036 caribou. We also recorded the frequency of two, one, and no antlers at two seasons. Samples were obtained in December and March from 1982 through 1987 from the Beverly herd of barren-ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) in north-central Canada. Weight of antlers increased with age of female caribou even after age 5 years. Antler weight was significantly but weakly related to body size, condition indices, and fecundity. Therefore, antler weights can be used to predict pregnancy rates and physical condition only if large numbers of antlers are obtained.

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The ebb and flow of caribou in the high Arctic

David R. Klein

Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775

Abstract: Caribou (and reindeer), Rangifer tarandus, show a broad range of adaptability to varying habitats throughout the distribution of the species, from the southern limits of the boreal and taiga forests and intermountain regions of North America and Eurasia to the northernmost lands in the Arctic. The caribou and reindeer and the muskox, Ovibos moschatus are the only two ungulate species adapted to life in the High Arctic. In the High Arctic however, caribou and reindeer live close to the limits of their adaptabilty to the extreme conditions present there and their populations are characterized by wide fluctuations, often culminating in local extirpation. Although the muskox may be somewhat better equipped to survive the climatic and associated vegetational extremes of the High Arctic, the extremely efficient locomotive ability of caribou has enabled them to become established, during at least some portions of the Holocene, on virtually all of the high arctic islands, as well as the insular-like ice free portions of all of Greenland. Their often transitory presence in these extreme habitats appears tied to past periods of climatic change as well as short term climatic extremes. However, the arrival and successful establishment of caribou on the extremely remote arctic islands of Svalbard and Franz Josef Land 5,000 and 4,000 years ago respectively, required favorable climatic conditions for establishment and growth of forage plants, a population source from which they derived, and conditions permitting their long distance travel across the pack ice. The presence and dynamics of caribou on the Severnaya Semlya and New Siberian archipelagos have been the product of seeding by the large migratory herds on the adjacent mainland, favorable ice conditions in the straits separating them from the mainland, suitable climatic conditions on the islands, and the frequency of disruptions in their freedom to return to the mainland. Of critical importance to the establishment and persistence of populations of caribou in these marginal habitats at such high latitudes has been the absence or low density of predators, including humans, and freedom from the pysiological stresses of insect parasitism and harassment common at lower lattitudes. If the current patterns of global climate change continue, with greatest changes occurring in the Arctic, caribou in the High Arctic can be expected to respond through major distributional and population changes in relation to the regional variations that characterize arctic climate.

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Seasonal distribution and important habitats of Beverly and Qamanirjuaq Caribou.

Leslie A. Wakelyn

The Beverly and Qamanirjuaq Caribou Management Board, Yellowknife, NT

Abstract: The Beverly and Qamanirjuaq Caribou Management Board initiated a project in 1996 to identify areas of important habitat for the Beverly and Qamanirjuaq caribou herds, and to produce documents and maps which will help the Board and others to assess the potential effects of proposed land use activities on these caribou and their habitat. This work is being conducted with the support of Wildlife Habitat Canada and the Northwest Territories Department of Resources, Wildlife, and Economic Development.

The first tasks, undertaken by the author, were to compile all available scientific information on the distribution and movements of the Beverly and Qamanirjuaq caribou herds, to enter this data into a geographic information system, and to produce maps of seasonal caribou ranges. The Board is also identifying land-use activities that could negatively affect Beverly and Qamanirjuaq caribou and their habitat, developing a classification system for development proposals, and preparing guidelines for assessing potential impacts of activities. These guidelines will be used in conjunction with the seasonal range maps and databases. Traditional knowledge on caribou distribution and movements will be incorporated into the important habitats project when it becomes available. The Board is currently identifying options for gathering this traditional knowledge from caribou range communities.

The documentation produced by this project (e.g., reports, maps, CD-ROM) will facilitate informed decision-making concerning conservation of caribou and caribou habitats by making a large amount of previously inaccessible information available to a wide audience. This information will be particularly valuable for use in land use planning, protected areas planning, and impact assessment conducted by government agencies and Aboriginal organizations throughout the range of the Beverly and Qamanirjuaq caribou herds. In addition, industry and the public will be able to use this information to assess potential conflicts for development activities proposed on the caribou range, and will be able to consider options which minimize conflicts early in the planning process.

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Overwinter changes in urea nitrogen:creatinine and cortisol:creatinine ratios of Banks Island Peary caribou

Nicholas C. Larter & John A. Nagy

Department of Resources, Wildlife, & Economic Development, Government of the Northwest Territories, Bag Service #1, Inuvik, NT X0E 0T0

Abstract: More than 130 snow urine samples were collected from Banks Island Peary caribou between March 1993 and February 1998. Samples were collected during 3 times periods: early winter (26 October-20 November), mid-winter (9-25 February), and late-winter (23 April-1 May). Samples were analyzed for concentrations of urea nitrogen, creatinine, and cortisol. We compared the ratios of urea nitrogen to creatinine (U:C) and cortisol to creatinine (C:C) between the 3 time periods and between years. U:C ratios showed both year and time effects. The ratios generally increased from early to late-winter and were highest in 1995-96. U:C ratios ranged from 0.53 to 19.05 mg:mg. C:C ratios showed only time effects, being highest in mid-winter. C:C and U:C ratios from the same samples were not correlated (R=-0.053). C:C ratios ranged from 0.0120 mg:mg from a sample collected in November 1994 to 0.2678 mg:mg from a sample collected in April 1997. U:C ratio levels for Peary caribou range from 10 to ca 100-fold higher than those reported for barren ground caribou. The U:C and C:C ratio levels from urine samples collected from 12 caribou that were sacrificed between November 1993 and February 1994 were some of the highest recorded for the given time in winter. Although none of the sacrificed animals were fat they were not in an advanced state of starvation and were in similar condition to animals that have been harvested for subsistence use in other years. This indicates that U:C levels >60-fold higher than those indicative of prolonged undernutrition in barren ground caribou are common for Banks Island Peary caribou. Opportunistic collections of 51 urine samples in mid-March, mid-May, and late November/early December 1993 are dicussed in light of the seasonal fluctuations and annual differences in winter snow conditions.

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Woodland caribou in the Mackenzie Mountains, Northwest Territories side: what we know and mostly what we don't know

Jan Z. Adamczewski ¹ & Alasdair M. Veitch ²

¹ Sahtu Renewable Resources Board, Box 490, Norman Wells, NT, Canada, X0E 0V0
²Dept. of Resources, Wildlife & Economic Development, Govt. of NT, Box 130, Norman Wells, NT, Canada, X0E 0V0

Abstract: Woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) in the Mackenzie Mountains (referred to here as mountain caribou) are an important resource for subsistence hunters in Sahtu communities and for big game outfitters. In comparison to research on barren-ground caribou and on mountain caribou in the Yukon, little effort or money has been spent on these animals on the Northwest Territories (NT) side of the mountains. Studies of mountain caribou in the Yukon suggest that there could be several populations, numbering from a few hundred to several thousand. The purpose of this presentation is to summarize current knowledge of mountain caribou populations on the NT side of the Mackenzie Mountains and to outline the first year of a prospective program of studies focused on the Sahtu region.

Current information indicates that there are three main herds from south to north - The South Nahanni (under study by Parks Canada), the Redstone, and the Bonnet Plume - all of which range between the NT and Yukon. These herds have been roughly estimated at 2,000-3,000, 5,000-10,000, and 5,000, respectively, although none have been counted. Concerns have been raised about the level of hunting pressure on the South Nahanni and Redstone herds. Redstone caribou are an important traditional source of caribou meat for Tulit'a, with an annual harvest estimated to exceed 100 caribou. A total of 172 caribou bulls were reported killed in 1996 by Mackenzie Mountain outfitters on the Northwest Territories side.

The long-term goal of the proposed study program is to determine the identity, seasonal distribution, size and population trend of mountain caribou herds in the Northwest Territories side of the Mackenzie Mountains, with the focus on herds in the Sahtu region. During the initial year of study, the objective is to identify breeding populations of caribou, using a combination of (1) traditional-knowledge surveys in Sahtu communities, (2) rutting ground survey flying in October, (3) a survey of outfitters operating in the Mackenzie Mountains, and (4) DNA-finger-printing to determine relatedness of caribou from particular geographic areas. A secondary objective is to estimate condition and fecundity of mountain caribou by (5) collection of data from winter community hunts based out of Tulit'a, to compare with data collected about 20 years ago. In further years, studies will be directed toward identifying seasonal range use, demography and harvests of individual caribou herds, with the likely initial focus on Redstone caribou.

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Fright response of reindeer in four geographical areas in Southern Norway after disturbance by humans on foot or skis.

Eigil Reimers, Jonathan Colman, Sindre Eftestøl, Jarl Kind, Liv Dervo, and Anne Muniz.

Dep. of Zoology, University of Oslo. P.O. Box 1050, Blindern, N-0316 Oslo Norway

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to identify factors influencing wild reindeer's fright behavior towards human on foot or skis, and compare this behavior among 4 geographical areas chosen according to their degree of human activity and hunting. We tested 2 hypotheses; 1.) reindeer that are hunted by humans show stronger fright behavior towards humans after the hunting season than before and 2.) reindeer fright response towards humans on foot or skis is negatively related to the total level of human activity, including, but not limited to, hunting. Reindeer fright distances were recorded during summer, autumn, and winter in 1 wild, Rondane north/Snøhetta (RN/SH), and 3 feral reindeer populations in Southern Norway; Norefjell (NoF), Ottadalen North (Od), Forelhogna (FoH). The present populations in NoF, Od, and FoH originated from domestic reindeer released or escaped in the 1950's and 1960's. For reindeer in NoF, the total level of human activity has continuously been high, and there was no hunting since the time of their release prior to this study. Reindeer in Od and FoH have been hunted since 1964 and 1956, respectively, and have simultaneously been exposed to a lower total level of human activity compared to NoF. Comparing Od with FoH, human activity in Od is lowest. RN/SH has the lowest level of human activity among the 4 areas, and hunting has occurred since pre-historic time. Fieldwork was conducted during 3 seasons; winter (March), summer (July; before hunting season), and autumn(September/October; after hunting season) in 1992 (NoF and Od), 1993 (RN/SH) and 1996 (FoH). The reindeer were approached by humans on foot or skis and 4 response distances were measured: sight, fright, flight and running. Six independent variables (area, season, topography, wind direction, herd size, and herd structure) were recorded to analyze their individual or combined impacts on the responses recorded. In Forelhogna, the 4 response distances (± se) were significantly longer before the hunting season ( 222 ±16m, 169 ±15m, 142 ±14m and 487 ±30m) than after the hunting season (189 ±11m, 107 ±9m, 86 ±8m, 198 ±38m). In NoF, Od, RN/SH fright distances before and after the hunting season were almost equal. When data was combined for seasons in each area, the 4 distances (± se) varied significantly among the 4 areas (p < 0.001) and were longest in RN/SH (448 ±24m, 385 ±24m, 324 ±22m, 2634 ±350m), followed by Od (194 ±8m, 143 ±5m, 91 ±4m, 439 ±72m) for running distance and FoH (220 ±19m, 149 ±17m, 122 ±16m, 307 ±59m) for sight, fright and flight distance. The 4 distances were shortest in NoF (173 ±14m, 90 ±9m, 38 ±6m, 221 ±36m). Because all the response distances were not longer after the hunting season than before, we rejected hypothesis 1. At this point, there is not enough evidence to support or reject (test) hypothesis 2. When data were pooled for the 4 areas, geographical area and season had the greatest overall effect on the 4 distances (p < 0.001 for all distances).

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Response distances of Forelhogna reindeer after disturbance by humans on foot or skis.

Sindre Eftestøl, Jonathan Colman and Eigil Reimers.

Dep. of Zoology, University of Oslo. P.O. box 1050, Blindern, N-0316 Norway

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to measure reindeer fright distances in Forelhogna, Norway, and identify factors involved in Forelhogna reindeer's response towards humans on foot or skis. The study was carried out in March, July and September/October 1996. A comparison among seasons was used in testing whether reindeer in Forelhogna become more shy directly after the hunting season (August 20 - September 20) compared to before (July) and winter (March). The reindeer were approached by humans on foot or skis and 5 response distances were measured: sight, fright, flight, running and "curiosity" distance. Seven independent variables (area, season, topography, wind direction, herd size, herd structure and level of insect harassment) were recorded to analyze their individual or combined impacts on the responses recorded. Where the reindeer moved after a provocation in relation to wind direction and terrain was also recorded. When possible, the leader of the group when in flight was recorded for mixed groups. The longest average fright and flight distances (±se), respectively, were recorded in winter (193 ±16m, 151 ±19m), followed by summer (169 ± 15m, 142 ±14m). The longest running and curiosity distances (±se), respectively, were recorded in summer (487 ±52m, 71 ±36m) followed by winter (215 ±30m, 67 ±11m). These 4 distances (same order as above) were shortest in autumn, i.e., after the hunting season (107 ± 9m, 86 ±8m, 198 ±38m, 42 ±11m). In the winter and autumn seasons, smaller groups (< 20) had significantly longer running distances than medium(> 20 and < 75) and larger groups (> 75), with clearer results from the autumn season (p < 0.01). For the summer season, there were no significant difference between group sizes for running distance. There was no significant difference among days with vs days without insect harassment for any distance. When data was combined for all seasons, the independent variables season and group size, respectively, significantly effected the fright (p < 0.001, p = 0.004), flight (p < 0.001, p < 0.001) and running (p < 0.001, p < 0.001) distances. Large groups showed a curiosity response more often than small groups (p < 0,05), and when a mixed group showed a curiosity response towards humans, calves < 1 yr. were most often the closest animal to the provocer (p< 0.001). Curiosity distances for adult > 1 yr. males and females were almost equal. When provoked, reindeer most often moved up slope 73% (level terrain 11% and down slope 16%) and into the wind 54% (with the wind 21% and sidewind 25%). When a mixed group (males and females) began to move, it was most often an adult female who led the group (p < 0.05). Because the fright, flight, running, and curiosity distances were shortest after the hunting season (autumn), we concluded that reindeer in Forelhogna were not more shy (in fact, they were less shy) towards humans after the hunting season compared to before (July) or winter (March).

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Antler characteristics of reindeer and caribou

J.E. Rowell, J.E. Blake and A.N.J. Newton.

Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, AK 99775-7000.

Abstract: Caribou and reindeer are the only species of deer in which females and calves are capable of growing antlers. Both caribou and reindeer are being raised at the Large Animal Research Station (LARS), Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks and provide an opportunity to closely monitor antler growth and compare antler characteristics between sex/age classes and subspecies. Information on antler growth, cleaning, casting and regrowth have been collected on an opportunistic basis over the past 5 years. These data will be used to depict the annual antler cycle in caribou and reindeer. A subsample of cast antlers have been weighed and measured from the coronet, along the inner curve to the tip of the inner (longest) tine. Adult male antlers (> 3 yrs old) were heavier (P<0.05) and longer (P<0.05) than those of adult females in both subspecies. Among females, reindeer had heavier (P<0.001) and longer (P<0.001) antlers than caribou in all age classes. There were not enough male antlers available to compare between subspecies and age.

Pedicle/first antler growth was measured from the day of birth through to ossification of the first antler in female reindeer calves (1994) and female caribou calves (1997). Palpable pedicles were evident on the day of birth and measurable pedicle growth began in both subspecies by 2 weeks of age. This was followed immediately by growth of the first antler. Increase in body mass over the first 17 weeks did not differ between female reindeer (n=4) and female caribou (n=5) calves. However, in the same time frame, reindeer antler growth rate was significantly (P<0.006) greater than that of caribou. Only female reindeer calves produced secondary tines in the first growing season. Castration of male caribou (n=2) and reindeer (n=2) on the day of birth did not prevent pedicle/antler growth in these calves.

In both our reindeer and caribou, housed under the same conditions and eating the same food, pedicle induction was evident at birth and not dependent on post natal steroids. The rapid growth of reindeer calf antlers is consistent with the heavier and longer female reindeer antlers found in all age classes. This suggests a genetic difference that may be related to the earlier sexual maturity of the reindeer.

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Woodland caribou population range and distribution in central Manitoba: Implications for forestry practices.

Kimberlely Brown¹, Campbell Elliott², & Francois Messier¹

¹ University of Saskatchewan, 112 Science Pl. Saskatoon, SK.
² Department of Natural Resources, Government of Manitoba,Thompson, MB.

Abstract: Fifteen female woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) collared in central Manitoba to obtain information on population range and distribution, seasonal location and movements, and habitat use in relation to forestry concerns. The study was conducted from January 1995 to June 1997. The population ranged over 4000 km2 and two areas of high use were identified. These animals showed fidelity to specific summer areas but wintering locations were variable. Short distance migrations (< 50 kms) to wintering locations were noted, though the majority of animals wintered in or near their summer ranges for at least one year. Peatland complexes were widely used while poplar dominated sites were avoided. Caribou generally avoided harvested areas though one group was observed foraging in a young (< 2 years) jack pine cut-over.

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Wetland habitat selection by woodland caribou

W. Kent Brown¹, W. James Rettie² and Bob Wynes³

¹TAEM Ltd., 145 Wedgewood Drive SW, Calgary, AB, Canada, T3C
²Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, 112 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK, Canada, S7N 5E2
³Daishowa-Marubeni International Ltd., Postal Bag 2200, Peace River, AB, Canada, T8S 1Y4

Abstract: We examined habitat selection by woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) in northwestern Alberta based on a wetland classification system developed for the Alberta Vegetation Inventory. Our two objectives were to describe caribou habitat use, and to assess the utility of the wetland classification system in land-use planning on caribou range. We used a geographical information system to overlay the locations of radio-collared caribou on the habitat map. Using a "moving-window" analysis of habitat availability, we examined patterns of habitat selection by 16 individual female caribou during five annual seasons over two years. We did not detect significant differences in habitat selection patterns among seasons. Caribou showed significant preferences for both bogs and fens with low to moderate tree cover. Marshes, uplands, heavily forested wetlands, water, and areas of human use were avoided. The wetland classification system appears to have value for broad-scale planning of industrial activity on caribou range. We suggest that more-detailed descriptions of vegetation, especially understory species, are required to refine this system for operational-level forest harvest planning.

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Survival and reproduction of woodland caribou in the boreal region of northern Alberta.

E. H. Dzus

Boreal Caribou Research Program c/o Nova Gas Transmission Ltd., 15810 - 114 Ave., Edmonton, AB T5M 2Z4

Abstract: A collaborative research program focusing on woodland caribou began in northern Alberta in 1991. The partnership involves representatives from government, industry, university and First Nation's. Two main goals exist for the research program: (1) to establish a knowledge base of caribou ecology (e.g., population dynamics, movements, habitat use, etc.); and (2) to evaluate the effects of human activity on woodland caribou. Knowledge acquired through the research program is to provide support for land-use guidelines that will facilitate industrial activity while at the same time conserving woodland caribou populations. This research is conducted by biologists of the Boreal Caribou Research Program (the amalgamated research subcommittees of the Northeast and Northwest Regional Standing Committees on Woodland Caribou).

Understanding survival and recruitment are important components of monitoring caribou population dynamics. Since 1991, woodland caribou ecology has been studied in several areas of northern Alberta. A total of 260 caribou have been collared in the areas near Red Earth (n = 36), Caribou Mountains (n = 38), Wabasca (n = 84), Agnes Lake (n = 16), Egg Lake (n = 21), Algar Lake (n = 18), Crow Lake/other (n = 7) and in the Cold Lake Air Weapons Range (n = 40). Monitoring of these areas will continue for at least the next two years. In a recent publication, Stuart-Smith et al. (1997; J. Wildl. Manage 61:622-633) reported adult survival in a 20,000 km² study area of northeastern Alberta averaged 0.88 +/- 0.03. Calf survival to March was 18 calves / 100 cows. I will present an update on caribou survival and causes of adult mortality for the northeastern Alberta study areas and compare these values to those for the Red Earth (northcentral Alberta) and Caribou Mountains (northern Alberta near the Northwest Territories border). Implications for population dynamics of woodland caribou will be discussed.

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Reproductive performance of female Alaskan caribou

Layne G. Adams¹ and Bruce W. Dale²

¹U.S. Geological Survey-Biological Resources Division, Alaska Biological Science Center, 1011 E. Tudor Road, Anchorage, AK 99503, USA
² U.S. National Park Service-Alaska Region, 2525 Cambell Street, Anchorage, AK 99503, USA

Abstract: We examined the reproductive performance of female barrenground caribou (Rangifer tarandus), in relation to age, physical condition and reproductive experience for 9 consecutive years (1987-95) at Denali National Park, Alaska, during a period of wide variation in winter snowfall. Caribou in Denali differed from other populations where reproductive performance has been investigated in that they occur at low densities (< 0.3/km²) and experience high losses of young to predation. Average annual natality rates increased from 27% for 2-year-olds to 100% for 7 year-olds, remained high for 7-13-year-olds (98%), then declined for females >14. Females > 2 years old that failed to reproduce were primarily sexually immature (76%). Reproductive pauses of sexually mature females were rare (6%) and occurred predominantly to young (3-6 years old) and old (> 14 years old) females.

Natality increased significantly (P < 0.05) with body mass of 10-month-old females weighed 6 months prior to the autumn breeding season, and of females > 1 year old weighed during autumn (late September-early November). Natality for 2-, 3-, 4-, and 6-year-olds declined significantly with increasing late winter snowfall (February-May) during the winter prior to breeding. Because influences of weather on productivity were limited to young age-classes and adverse weather also decreased recruitment, population productivitywas affected more by changes in population age-structure, than by age-specific productivity.

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Postglacial caribou remains preserved in a snow patch in southern Yukon.

Gerald W. Kuzyk ¹, Donald E. Russell ², Richard S. Farnell ¹, Ruth M. Gotthardt ³, Greg Hare ³, Erik Blake ⁴

¹ Department of Renewable Resources, Box 2703, Whitehorse, Yukon, Y1A 2C6
² Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada, 91782 Alaska Highway, Whitehorse, Yukon, Y1A 5B7
³ Heritage Branch, 303 A Strickland Street, Whitehorse, Yukon,
⁴ Icefield Instruments Inc., Whitehorse, Yukon

Abstract: In September, 1997 the first author noted a large concentration of caribou (Rangifer sp) fecal pellets and a caribou antler on a permanent snow patch in the Kusawa Lake area of southwest Yukon. There is little recorded local or traditional knowledge of caribou occurring in the area in the last 100 years (O'Donaghue, 1996). The snow patch is at 1830 m above sea level in a north facing alpine basin. It is estimated to be about 750 m long and 300 m wide and 3-10 m thick.

The site provided the opportunity to investigate long term ecological changes that affect caribou distribution in southwest Yukon. Fecal pellet samples were collected from 18 surface sites around the snow patch. Several faunal samples, including a jawbone, long bone and small clump of hair were also recovered. An ice coring auger was used to obtain buried fecal material, to determine the age of the accumulation. Also recovered at the site on the edge of the snow patch was the shaft of prehistoric wooden dart.

Fecal, bone and hair samples were sent for DNA fingerprinting to the University of Alberta to confirm the samples to species. Fecal samples were sent to the Washington State University for analysis ofplant fragments.

Fecal caribou material recovered from approximately 1.6 m below the surface and a small portion of the wooden dart were sent to Isotrace Laboratories at the University of Toronto for AMS radiocarbon dating. An age of 2450 BP + 50 years was obtained for the fecal material and the dart was dated at 4360 BP + 50 years. These dates indicate that the formation of this alpine snow patch may coincide with a mid-Holocene cooling trend and that aboriginal Yukon hunters have been harvesting animals, presumably caribou, at this location for at least 4,000 years. The dart fragment appears to represent one of the few organic examples of atlatl technology (short spear propelled by a throwing board) ever found in Canada.

These results indicate that the site offers a rare opportunity to explore a number of questions regarding implications of climate change on caribou populations, prehistoric ecology of large caribou populations and high elevation archaeological sites. The site will be further investigated over the next couple of years after an interdisciplinary study design is developed.

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Habitat and diet selection of muskoxen and reindeer on the Seward Peninsula/ Alaska

Claudia Ihl and David R. Klein

Alaska Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, University of Alaska, Fairbanks AK 99775-0990, USA

Abstract: Reindeer herding was established on the Seward Peninsula approximately 100 years ago to provide a stable food supply for native people. Currently about 25,000 free-ranging reindeer occur in the area. Since muskoxen were introduced to the Seward Peninsula in 1971 and 1980, their population has increased steadily, today numbering about 1,000 animals. Some local reindeer herders have expressed concerns about possible range and forage competition and negative behavioral interaction between the two species. While some studies show little overlap in habitat use patterns between muskoxen and Rangifer tarandus, others have provided evidence that the two species can compete under certain circumstances. The objectives of this study are to identify factors influencing the selection of feeding sites and craters for both species, to characterize overlap in habitat and diet use and to understand possible implications for competition. Preliminary analysis shows that both species use similar range types and feeding sites with similar vegetative characteristics. In selecting areas where they cratered, both species prefer spots with shallower and softer snow and a higher occurrence of mosses and lichens than surrounding areas, while muskoxen also select for sedges and above-snow graminoids. Analysis of fecal samples shows that reindeer diets contain a higher proportion of lichens and muskox diets contain a higher proportion of sedges. Few direct behavioral interactions were observed. They were of a benign nature, with neither species appearing to be distressed by the presence of the other.

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Caribou behaviour near BHP's Ekati Diamond Mine, Northwest Territories, Canada, during the first year of construction.

Laurie Buckland¹, Luci Davis², Derek A. Melton³, Michael Raine³, and John Virgl⁴

¹ Golder Associates Ltd., Box 255, Postal Service 9600, Yellowknife, NWT, X1A 2R3
² BHP Diamonds Inc., 1102, 4929 - 52nd st., Yellowknife, NT, X1A 3T1
³ Golder Associates Ltd., 10 th. Fl, 940 6th Ave. SW., Calgary, Alberta, T2P 3T1
⁴ Golder Associates Ltd., 209, 2121 Airport Drive, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7L 6W5

Abstract: Aspects of caribou distribution and behaviour were monitored during 1997 in a 1600 km² study area surrounding the Ekati Diamond Mine, located 300 km northeast of Yellowknife, Northwest Territories. The null hypothesis being tested was that mine construction would not affect group size distribution, seasonal movements, or behaviour of the Bathurst caribou herd which migrate through the area. From May through October, forty-three aerial surveys indicated that there was no correlation between caribou group size and distance from the mine during either the northern (N = 98, P > 0.50) or southern (N = 174, P > 0.30) migration. During the northern migration, directional movement changed as animals moved closer to the mine (X² = 7.87, df = 2, P = 0.02), with more animals heading to the northwest as they approached the mine. Further investigation is required to see whether the mine or other environmental factors are linked to these movement patterns. Between 60% and 85% of the time, caribou showed no response to individual potential mine stressors. The most extreme response level (running) was only elicited by helicopters (high and low flying) and low flying fixed-wing aircraft. Overall, caribou were seen to be disturbed, at any level, less than 3% of the time. Comfort behaviour (bed, feed, stand) was, however, less than movement behaviour (walk, trot, run) on mine sites as compared to control sites (X² = 3.24, df = 1, P = 0.07). Behavioural results come from a small sample size (40 hr observations) and are therefore preliminary. Future monitoring is designed to obtain larger sample sizes and is more focused to test specific alternate hypotheses concerning potential mine effects on caribou. Results are being used to gauge the efficacy of mitigation measures and to modify those measures if necessary.

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Woodland caribou distribution on winter range in relation to clear-cut logging in west central Alberta - Management Implications.

Smith, K. G., E. J. Ficht, D. Hobson and D. Hervieux

Abstract: From 1981 to 1996, 45 migratory woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) were radio-collared and monitored during 3 study periods: 1. the initiation of timber harvesting activity, 2. the completion of first pass timber harvest, and 3. 1-2 years following the completion of first pass timber harvest on a portion of the winter range. Variables examined were overall winter range size, mean individual winter range size, daily movement rates, distance to closest cutblock, percent of locations in cutblocks on winter range as well as, annual adult survival and calf productivity. No population response relative to increased timber harvesting was detected. In the post harvest study period only 7 of 852 caribou sightings were within a cutblock. Distribution on the winter range varied by study period with movement away from the harvested area during the period of harvest completion and a partial return after harvesting ceased. Distance of radio-collared caribou from the cutblocks was greatest and daily movement rates most restricted during the period of harvest completion. Mean individual winter range size decreased significantly after harvesting was completed and overall herd range also decreased in size. The primary factor measured in this study was a decrease in the size of the winter range used by this herd. Caribou avoided using the total area that had been fragmented by logging and were more concentrated in a smaller, undisturbed portion of the winter range. If fragmentation of the winter range continues through timber harvesting and other industrial activities, the 'spacing out' strategy used by caribou to minimize levels of predation will be compromised. Based on these findings timber harvesting strategies are recommended to minimize this possibility.

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Feeding Site Selection by Woodland Caribou in Northcentral British Columbia

Chris J. Johnson¹, Katherine L. Parker¹ & Douglas C. Heard²

¹ Faculty of Natural Resources and Environmental Studies, University of
Northern British Columbia, 3333 University Way, Prince George, B.C.
² British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1011 4th Ave. Prince George, B.C.

Abstract: Northern woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) typically inhabit areas of low to moderate snow depths in low elevation forests, and primarily forage on terrestrial lichens during winter. Consequently, they are thought to be sensitive to habitat disturbance and the management of these animals is a high priority in Northcentral British Columbia. To further our understanding of this ecotype at the scale of the individual feeding site, we examined the foraging habits of a population of woodland caribou over two winters (Dec 1996-Apr 1998). We trailed animals and measured vegetation characteristics (species composition and percent cover), snow conditions (depth, density and hardness), and canopy closure at terrestrial feeding locations and at random sites where feeding had not occurred. Logistic regression was used to determine the attributes of feeding sites that are important to predicting fine scale habitat selection in forested and alpine areas by woodland caribou. Inferences are made to larger scales of habitat use and management implications are presented.

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Human Impacts on the Porcupine Caribou Herd

Linda Hoffman

Porcupine Caribou Management Board, Whitehorse, YT

Abstract: The Porcupine Caribou Management Board is directed by the communities that rely on the Porcupine Caribou herd to promote the conservation and protection of the caribou and its habitat. This task is enormous as the herd ranges over two nations, one state, two territories, five First Nations land claims areas, a wildlife refuge, two national parks, and several protected areas. The formation of the Canadian Porcupine Caribou Management Board and the International Porcupine Caribou Management Board are the results of efforts to place renewable resource management in the hands of the Northern people. The Porcupine Caribou Management Board's eight members have equal native and government representation.

The Porcupine Caribou Herd is the foundation of the culture of the native peoples who depend on the herd. Their lifestyles combine the use of the caribou with the water, the land, the language, and the culture. Caribou are not only a vital food source but a way of life. The native peoples of the North have a vested interest in the continuance of the herd for future generations. The core calving ground of the herd is in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge on Alaska's north coast. While the herd migrates over vast regions of northern Canada and Alaska, the migration patterns of the herd dictate that the continued success of the now 160,000 strong herd depends on at least 50% of the cows calving in this nutrient rich area on Alaska's coastal plain. Unfortunately, politics and oil development threaten the calving grounds and therefore, the existence of the herd.

The poster, which depicts the calving grounds on Alaska's northern coast, is a composite of several individual frames. It has become the signature poster for the lobby efforts to permanently protect the calving grounds. The Board, along with native organizations and environmental groups, has for many years actively lobbied for permanent protection of this vital area. To date, the Refuge has still not been given permanent protection. Migration, industrial development, and politics are a volatile mix.

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24-h activity pattern of wild reindeer in summer with emphasis on behavior compensation at night due to limited grazing during the day.

Jonathan Colman¹, Christian Pedersen¹, Eigil Reimers¹, Øystein Holand², and Stein Moe³

¹ University of Oslo, Biology inst., Div. of General physiology, P.O. 1051, Blindern, N-0316 OSLO, Norway
² Agricultural University of Norway (NLH), Inst. for Husdyrfag, P.O. 5025, N-1432 ÅS, Norway
³ NLH, Dep. of Biology and Nature Conservation, P.O. 5014, N-1432, ÅS, Norway.

Abstract: It is inaccurate to estimate an animal's energy budget and resources availability without a complete 24 h record of the animal's activity and range use. The purpose of this study was to document 24-h activity patterns of wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) during summer in a Southern Norwegian mountain range, with special emphasis on feeding behavior and range use. Extreme variation in daily summer activity patterns of reindeer can result from harassment by parasitic insects. This study concentrates on nutrient and energy compensation at night in the form of an optimal activity pattern and forage use as an adaptation to limited grazing and ruminating during the day. We used 3 methods of sampling animal activity; 1.) instantaneous scanning of groups at 15 min intervals, 2.) timing detailed activity sequences of focal females for < 30 min, and 3.) non-systematic ad libitum observations. From approximately June 25 - Sept. 1, wild reindeer in Southern Norway are harassed by biting and parasitic insects. We hypothesized that on days with severe insect harassment, reindeer will have different activity patterns between "day" and "night". This night activity pattern should reflect an energy/nutrient acquiring and energy conserving strategy and support the predictions below. Two assumptions for this are; 1.) that insect harassment only occurs during "day", and furthermore, is dependent on appropriate climatic conditions necessary for insect activity, and 2.) during "night", climatic conditions do not allow for insect activity and therefore, reindeer are not harassed. We predicted for a night following a day with high insect harassment, that during the night compared to day; 1.) reindeer will compensate for the daily constraint of insect harassment by spending more time feeding and feed more intensely, i.e. search less and feed standing still more, during feeding bouts, 2.) the choice for reindeer for where to feed, and thus what to feed on, is limited by the distances to the closest snow patch, thus, the distance to closest snow patch will be greater, allowing for more freedom of choice and use of optimal forage, 3.) when feeding, reindeer will utilize the highest quality forage available, 4.) reindeer will spend more time lying (including ruminating), and 5.) reindeer will use less time walking and running and considerably less time standing. This is the first systematic information gathered on wild reindeer behavior during summer nights using direct observational methods. Averaged over the summer season (1997) for scan samples, reindeer used 30 %, 28 %, 21 %, 14 %, and 7 % feeding, lying, standing, walking, and running, respectively, during the day (06:00 - 23:59), compared to 47 %, 42 %, 1 %, 9 %, and 1 % in the same activities, respectively, at night (00:00 - 05:59). When active during the day, reindeer moved an average of 90 m from the closest snow patch, compared to 126 m at night. These preliminary results from the first season (1997) lend support to predictions 1, 2, 4, and 5. We could not distinguish among vegetation types occupied while feeding and vegetation actually ingested.

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A comparison of radiocollar estimates of adult natural mortality with and without staggered entry in Yukon woodland caribou herds.

Michael M. Dehn¹, Gerald W. Kuzyk ², Richard S. Farnell²

¹ Feet on the Ground Communications, Box 4967, Whitehorse, Yukon, Y1A 4S2
² Department of Renewable Resources, Box 2703, Whitehorse, Yukon, Y1A 2C6

Abstract: Studies intended to estimate adult mortality on the basis of radio re-location data typically involve adding collars during the course of the study. Use of staggered entry is intended to keep mortality estimates unbiased and confidence intervals as small as possible, and is well-established theoretically and experimentally (eg. Pollock et al. 1989, White & Garrott, 1990:235). Here we evaluate the practical benefits of this approach in a wilderness field situation involving large ungulates, where it may be difficult to obtain the desired number of collared animals over time. In this paper we use data obtained as part of a larger study of wolf predation on ungulates to evaluate the effect of staggered entry. We compare adult mortality estimates from herds of Yukon woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) obtained from 1993 to 1998 with and without staggered entry.

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Comparison of Physical Characteristics of Yukon Woodland Caribou herds.

Gerald W. Kuzyk ¹, Michael M. Dehn ², Richard S. Farnell¹

¹ Department of Renewable Resources, Box 2703, Whitehorse, Yukon, Y1A 2C6
²Feet on the Ground Communications, Box 4967, Whitehorse, Yukon, Y1A 4S2

Abstract: Woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) living in central Yukon are thought to be integrades between the smaller barren-ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti) of northern Yukon and the larger woodland caribou to the south (Banfield, 1961; Gauthier and Farnell, 1986). Information from radio telemetry studies has found that woodland caribou living in the snow shadow region of southwest Yukon spend part of the winter in the subalpine and alpine. But caribou living in areas with high snowfall in central and eastern Yukon have traditional winter ranges in forested lowlands. We test the hypothesis that those woodland caribou which winter in the alpine are phenotypically different than woodland caribou wintering in forested environments. We compared five physical measurements from each of 415 woodland caribou in 14 Yukon herds. Female caribou captured between December and April, 1982-1997, are used for our compsarison; insufficient data were available to examine males, or females outside the winter season.

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Modeling energetic and demographic consequences of caribou interactions with oil development in the Arctic

Stephen M. Murphy¹, Don E. Russell², and Robert G. White³

¹ ABR, Inc., P.O. Box 80410, Fairbanks, AK 99708
² Environment Canada, 91782 Alaska Highway, Whitehorse, Yukon Y1A 5X7
³Large Animal Research Station, Institute of Arctic Biology, University ofAlaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775

Abstract: We used empirical data from the oilfields and simulation models to assess the energetic and demographic consequences for caribou (Rangifer tarandus) encountering oilfield activity and infrastructure. Specifically, activity budgets of female caribou moving through an active oilfield during the insect season were used as input for an ENERGY model, which in turn provided the input for a POPULATION model. Activity data were collected for Central Arctic Herd caribou during summer in the early 1980s in the newly constructed Kuparuk Oilfield. ENERGY and POPULATION models were developed for the Porcupine Caribou Herd based on more than two decades of research in Canada and Alaska. The ENERGY model was exercised using activity budgets that were calculated for a variety of insect and disturbance conditions, ranging from mild insect harassment and low disturbance to severe insect harassment and high disturbance. Response variables considered from the ENERGY model included cow weight at rut, percent body fat at rut, energy balance, and conception rate. Cow weight at rut is a good predictor of conception rate and was used as the primary input variable in the POPULATION model. This modeling exercise is ongoing and preliminary results are presented. Final results will need to be validated by field studies. The results of this exercise will be valuable for quantitatively assessing the impacts of oil development on caribou. Identifying thresholds of disturbance that cause population-level impacts will provide useful information for assessing the costs and benefits of new developments and will help oilfield planners to design infrastructure that accommodates caribou.

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Differences in tissue ¹⁵N natural abundance reveal seasonal shifts in diet choice of reindeer and caribou

Knut Kielland¹ and Greg Finstad²

¹Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK 99775
²Reindeer Research Program, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK 99775

Abstract: As part of a comprehensive study of reindeer forage relations on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska, we are investigating ¹⁵N natural abundance values for a suite of Rangifer forage plants and the resulting isotope chemistry in animal tissue (including antler, hooves, muscle, and blood), to test the hypothesis that variation in tissue stable isotope chemistry of Rangifer is a reflection of variation in diet composition over temporal and/or spatial scales.

Here we show examples from reindeer, caribou, and moose how enrichment or depletion of ¹⁵N in animal tissue can contribute to our understanding of seasonal shifts in their diet composition, and discuss the strengths and caveats of this methodology.For example, reindeer antler exhibit a marked enrichment ¹⁵N values over the season (based on core vs. periosteum antler values) reflecting the importance of deciduous shrub-based dietary nitrogen early in the summer, as compared to a graminoid-derived nitrogen later in the season. By contrast, captive reindeer kept on a uniform diet show constant antler values that are greatly enriched in ¹⁵N due to a large portion of their diet consisting of isotopically enriched pasture (¹⁵N = +3.5‰) and commercial feed (¹⁵N = +2.1‰).

Comparison of reindeer and moose antler support our contention that animal isotope signatures are functionally related to diet, rather than to other ecological variables. Reindeer antler exhibit a gradual enrichment in isotopic signature over the season reflecting the increasing importance of graminoids in their diet. By comparison, the ¹⁵N of moose antlers from interior Alaska start out depleted, reflecting a diet of isotopically-depleted woody browse, then show an enrichment of the heavy isotope later in the season consistent with a diet of green biomass, including aquatic plants, and finally exhibit an isotopic depletion as the animals return to feeding on woody shrubs.

In contrast to traditional approaches to diet selection (e.g., visual observation and fecal pellet analyses), measurements of stable isotope chemistry represents an assessment of dietary relationships that integrate dietary history on a weekly, seasonal or yearly basis, depending on the target tissues analyzed. We contend that stable isotope chemistry used singly or in combination with more traditional approaches to examine forage relationships, represents a potentially powerful method to evaluate the foraging ecology of northern, free-ranging ungulates.

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Climatic Influence on Forage Quality, Growth and Reproduction of Reindeer on the Seward Peninsula I: Climate and Forage Quality

Greg Finstad¹, Maria Berger¹, Knut Kielland², and Alexander K. Prichard¹

¹Reindeer Research Program, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK 99775
²Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK 99775

Abstract: Forage quantity and quality during spring and summer play an important role in rangifer productivity by influencing body condition, rates of growth, breeding success, and winter survivorship. Annual variations in summer weather influence forage availability and digestibility, which in turn, affect animal productivity. A study investigating the effect of climate on forage plant emergence and quality and subsequent reindeer productivity was conducted during 1996 and 1997 on reindeer ranges of the Seward Peninsula, Alaska.

Climatological models were developed using Growing Degree Days (GDD) to examine the effect of heat accumulation on forage plant emergence and chemistry. Models using temperature to examine plant chemistry (GDD vs nitrogen, GDD vs. Neutral Detergent Fiber, GDD vs. Acid Detergent Fiber) were found to be better predictors of plant quality than models that used date.

Fiber concentrations in graminoids were at a minimum during midseason, in contrast, to deciduous shrubs that exhibited low fiber concentrations in the spring with progressive increases through midseason to senescence. Fiber concentrations in forbs fluctuated less dramatically than either graminoids or shrubs. We developed a deterministic model relating climate variables to reproductive success of yearling reindeer based on observed relationships between temperature and plant chemistry.

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Climatic Influence on Forage Quality, Growth and Reproduction of Reindeer on the Seward Peninsula II: Reindeer Growth and Reproduction

Greg L. Finstad and Alexander K. Prichard.

Reindeer Research Program, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK 99775.

Abstract: Birth weights and growth rates of caribou and reindeer calves have been shown to be influenced by summer and winter range conditions. Reproductive performance has been shown to be influenced by autumn body weight. Unlike reindeer in many herds, reindeer on the Seward Peninsula frequently give birth at one year of age. This early breeding requires rapid summer weight gain and thus may be dependent on high quality forage. Yearly variation in forage quality is strongly influenced by weather, therefore age of first reproduction should be correlated with climatic variation. We used data collected from reindeer on the Seward Peninsula from 1987-1997 to show that the proportion of yearlings lactating in June and July is positively related to Growing Degree Days (GDD) the previous May and June, and negatively related to both GDD the previous July and snow depth the winter prior to birth. Plant nitrogen and fiber data suggest that this may be due to the effects of GDD on forage plant emergence in May and June and plant fiber formation in July. Our model suggests that low snow years improve female condition at the time of birth, thereby influencing birth weight and calf growth rate during lactation, and that warm spring and cool summer temperatures optimize plant quality and decrease insect harassment. These favorable weather conditions allow calves to reach higher weights prior to the breeding season, thus increasing the proportion of pregnant yearlings the following spring. The model fit is very good, suggesting that these three climatic variables, snow depth, spring temperature, and summer temperature, are the primary factors affecting yearly variation in age of first reproduction in this reindeer herd.

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Permafrost, Lichen, and Woodland Caribou: Late-winter habitat use in relation to forage availability.

Robert B. Anderson¹, Bob Wynes², and Stan Boutin¹.

¹ Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E9.
² Daishowa-Marubeni International Ltd., Postal Bag 2200, Pulp Mill Site, Peace River, Alberta, T8S 1Y4.

Abstract: Habitat use may be influenced by factors such as forage abundance, predation risk, and human disturbance. On a large scale, woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) in northern Alberta have been shown to restrict their movements to within large peatland complexes. Avoidance of upland habitats may be influenced by predation risk. No study has been done on finer scale habitat use within these peatland complexes. The purpose of this study was to determine if late-winter habitat use within the peatland complex is influenced by the abundance of Cladina lichen. It was hypothesised that permafrost-underlain habitats would have the greatest Cladina abundance and, therefore, be selected by caribou. Average Cladina ground cover was quantified for ten wetland types during the summer of 1997. Habitat use was determined from feeding sites and radio-telemetry data. Feeding sites were located by backtracking from mid-January to the end of March, 1997. Telemetry data has been collected in this late-winter period since 1991. The distance from each telemetry point to the closest habitat with high forage availability was calculated using a GIS (Geographic Information System) and compared to random points. Vegetation analysis produced two habitat categories: 1) 'high' Cladina treed peatlands; and 2) 'low' Cladina open peatlands and non-peat wetlands. Permafrost-underlain peatlands did not have significantly higher Cladina abundance than other treed peatlands. Feeding site analysis showed greater use of all high Cladina habitats than low Cladina habitats for feeding. All high Cladina habitats were used more for feeding than would be expected randomly, while low Cladina habitats showed the opposite trend. Telemetry locations were closer to high Cladina habitats than would be expected from random. As habitats with a high Cladina ground cover appear to be important to woodland caribou in northern Alberta, further study should be done to determine if human disturbance affects use of these habitats by caribou.

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Landscape-level Considerations in the Management of Forest-dwelling Woodland Caribou in Northwestern Ontario

Ted Armstrong¹, Gerald Racey² and Nancy Bookey¹

¹ Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 435 James Street South, Suite 221,
² Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, R.R.#1, 25th Sideroad, Thunder Bay, Ontario Canada P7C 4T9

Abstact: Forest-dwelling woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) are distributed widely across northwestern Ontario, although their range has receded significantly during the 19th and 20th centuries. Despite this continuous range occupancy, there is a clear mosaic of high value habitats used by caribou, separated by lower-use habitats. Radio-collaring data illustrate the large scale at which woodland caribou use the range (i.e. 100_s to 1000_s of sq. km/year). This mosaic of habitat use is a reflection of habitat conditions and landscape patterns created by wildfire and logging within the boreal forest. As forest management and other human development extend further into woodland caribou range, the continued presence of caribou in the boreal forest is dependent upon the continuation of forest landscape patterns similar to that which occurred with wildfire. "Mosaics" of scheduled harvest and deferred tracts are in place for all Forest Management Units within caribou range. A series of landscape-level maps illustrate current range occupancy and distribution of caribou, the mosaic of current high value habitats, the broad scale at which radio-collared caribou use the forest landscape, and the projected forest management harvest and deferral mosaic intended to emulate natural fire patterns.

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Snow goose overgrazing: an issue for caribou management?

Ryan K. Brook, Richard K. Baydack and Helen Fast

Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2

Abstract: The Mid-Continent population of lesser snow geese (Anser caerulescens caerulescens) is negatively impacting its coastal breeding grounds in the Arctic and Sub-arctic. Large expanses of the coastal Hudson Bay lowlands are being degraded as a result of their destructive feeding behavior and rapidly increasing population size. There is considerable evidence that the degradation of coastal marshes and adjacent willow communities is beginning to adversely affect many local bird populations. The effects of this habitat disturbance on caribou (Rangifer tarandus) remains unclear. To begin to examine this issue, the Cape Churchill caribou population and the La Pérouse Bay snow goose colony in Wapusk National Park, Manitoba, Canada are used as a case example. The rise in population and overgrazing activities of the La Pérouse Bay snow goose colony has been closely monitored for more than 25 years. In contrast, little is known of the ecology of the Cape Churchill caribou population. Existing information suggests that the caribou are closely associated with the Hudson Bay coast during the summer months. As the snow geese begin to abandon their colony in La Pérouse Bay and move along the coast, the damage to caribou summer habitat may be severe.

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The Western Arctic Caribou Herd: Current Status and Management Issues

Dau, J.¹, J. Coady², S. Machida³ and L.A. Ayres¹

¹Alaska Department of Fish & Game, Box 689, Kotzebue, AK 99752
²Alaska Department of Fish & Game, 1300 College Road, Fairbanks, AK 99701-1599
³Alaska Department of Fish & Game, Box 1148, Nome, AK 99762

Abstract: As of July 1996, the Western Arctic Herd numbered approximately 463,000 caribou (Rangifer tarandus). This herd last peaked at 243,000 caribou in 1970, then declined to about 75,000 by 1976. From 1976 to 1990, this herd grew approximately 13% annually. Since 1990, growth has been about 2% annually. Annual indices of recruitment and adult cow mortality collected since the early 1980s appear consistent with this population trend. Since 1990, annual subsistence and sport harvests have been roughly 20,000 and 1,000-3,000 caribou, respectively. Biological issues currently facing the Western Arctic Herd include: 1) body condition and its relationship to instances of severe, localized fall and winter mortality; 2) potential effects of disease and environmental contamination on caribou and people who subsist on them; and 3) potential range deterioration. Social issues include: 1) mutual trust and exchange of information between managers and users; 2) diverse, complex and sometimes competing demands among subsistence users, sport hunters, commercial operators and nonconsumptive users of Western Arctic caribou; 3) expansion of caribou into reindeer ranges; 4) conflicts with muskoxen management; and 5) antler sales and a proposed commercial harvest of caribou for meat. Technical issues center on monitoring a population this large over its expansive range. The political issue of dual state-federal management of wildlife in Alaska overlays all biological and social considerations. Comanagement is currently being explored to meld biological, social and political aspects of managing the Western Arctic Herd.

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Seasonal Range Use and Demography of the South Nahanni Woodland Caribou Herd, southern Mackenzie Mountains, NWT and Yukon

Douglas K. Gullickson

Department of Canadian Heritage, Parks Canada, Nahanni National Park Reserve, Box 348, Fort Simpson, NT, X0E 0N0

Abstract: Investigations of woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) were conducted from March 1995 - March 1998 to provide information on seasonal range use and demography of the South Nahanni Herd (SNH) located in the southern Mackenzie Mountains of the Northwest Territories and Yukon. Parks Canada developed and sponsored the three-year baseline study to address the concerns of local First Nations, encourage collaboration with Territorial wildlife agencies and acquire an enhanced understanding of the little known SNH. The Yukon Department of Renewable Resources provided technical support from the outset and in 1996/97 contributed funds for fall composition surveys.

To define seasonal herd range and movements, twenty-five adult female caribou were radio-collared on late winter range in March 1995 and relocated five times annually. These locations showed that the SNH inhabits a traditional winter range of approximately 4,000 km-sq within and adjacent to Nahanni National Park Reserve. The herd is more dispersed in other seasons and its overall range covers approximately 16,000 km-sq located principally within the upper South Nahanni Watershed of the Selwyn/Logan/Mackenzie Mountains. The majority of the SNH was found to migrate off winter range to calving, post calving, and fall rut areas northwest of the Ragged Range between the South Nahanni River and the NWT/Yukon Territorial Border.

A population census has yet to be conducted but is estimated to number 2,000 - 3,000 caribou (R. Farnell, Yukon Renewable Resources, pers. comm.). Annual survival of radio-collared adult females averaged 0.81 during 1996 and 1997. The sex and age composition of the SNH was estimated from aerial surveys in October, 1995-1997. The adult sex ratio of adult males to females at that time averaged 39:100 (range 32.0 - 47.0) and the calf:cow ratio averaged 21:100 (range 17.1 - 25.6). The calf:cow ratios over the three-year study period point to low recruitment and possibly an unstable or declining population. Both resident and guided non-resident hunters harvest the SNH but the extent of this harvest is not well known. Analyses of diet from fecal samples and snow depth/density results from late winter crater surveys indicate that winter forage is not a limiting factor for the SNH.

Data collected thus far provides insight into the herd's identity, seasonal range use and demographic trend but requires additional study for effective and informed management. The GNWT Department of Resources, Wildlife and Economic Development has committed to take a lead role in the further study and management of the SNH. Proposed study efforts include a detailed harvest analysis and stratified population census on late winter range in 1999.

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Sex, Age, and Condition of Wolf-Killed Caribou

Bruce W. Dale¹ and Layne G. Adams²

¹Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 1300 College Road, Fairbanks AK USA 99701
² US Geological Survey-Biological Resources Division, Alaska Biological Science Center, 1011 E Tudor Road, Anchorage AK USA 99503

Abstract: We compare the sex, age, and condition of caribou killed by wolves with caribou killed by hunters, and estimates of herd composition. These comparisons provide insight into selectivity and predation characteristics of wolves on barren-ground caribou. We investigated 205 kills after wolves had left the kill site and examined 65 hunter killed caribou.

Of 124 known-sex kills, males comprised 45% of caribou killed by wolves. Ageclass could be determined for 171 caribou kills, of which calves comprised 17% of wolf-killed caribou. Herd composition surveys indicated available proportions of 57% cows, 14% calves, and 29% bulls. Although confidence intervals were wide, selection by wolves for calves and adult males was suggested. Sex of wolf-kills did not vary by season (March vs. November) in this study, although the test was weak due to small sample sizes.

Hunters killed primarily adult females and the hunter kill may therefore reasonably approximate the availability of full-grown (>3) adult females. Wolves killed proportionally more old (ages > or = 8) caribou than in the hunter-killed sample (2X2 Chi-square = 6.58, P=0.010). While the old vs. young categorization is arbitrary, chi-square analyses were still significant if the cut off age was moved one year in either direction. This pattern of selectivity is consistent with that reported for other species.

The comparison of physical characteristics by cause of death was limited to adult females because sample sizes for bulls and calves were insufficient. Sample sizes for wolf-killed adult females ranged from 10-12 resulting in low power of statistical comparisons. Only mean diastema length varied significantly by cause of death (P=0.031). However, means for all parameters were consistently lower for wolf-killed caribou suggesting increased vulnerability of small individuals to wolves. Trends were identical for full-grown females (>3 years of age).

Wolf-killed adult female caribou had significantly lower marrow fat (X=67%, SD=0.319, N=12) than hunter-killed adult females (X=90%, SD=0.048, N=52). Three of the wolf-kills had very low marrow fat (<25%) that likely had a strong influence on means. None of the 52 hunter-killed adult females had less than 30% marrow fat.

Sample sizes are small and controls only roughly reflect availability. Nonetheless, this analysis suggests that selectivity by wolves among caribou sex and age classes is similar to that shown for other ungulates.

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Mechanisms of summer weight gain in northern caribou herds

D.E. Russell¹, R. D. Cameron², R. G White², and K. L. Gerhart².

¹ Environment Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service, 91782 Alaska Hwy, Whitehorse, Yukon, Y1A 5B7
² Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775

Abstract: Northern caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti) encounter dramatic seasonal shifts in nutrient availability. Fat and protein reserves depleted during winter are replenished in summer and early autumn. To examine rates and patterns of summer weight gain, 46 Central Arctic Herd (CAH)(1988-91) and 76 Porcupine Caribou Herd (PCH)(1992-94) females were captured and weighed in early July and then recaptured and re-weighed in late September or October. For PCH females, a body condition score was also recorded, allowing estimates of protein and fat composition. In early summer, non-lactating females in the PCH were significantly heavier than those in the CAH (87.8 kg vs. 79.6 kg, p=0.001), while corresponding weights of lactating females were not significantly different (81.8 kg vs. 79.8 kg, p>0.3). By autumn, however, both lactating and non-lactating females in the PCH were heavier than those in the CAH (lactating, 93.3 kg vs. 85.4 kg, p=0.01; non-lactating, 100.9 kg vs.94.1 kg, p=0.0006). Rates of gain for lactating females were significantly higher in the PCH than in the CAH (120 g/d vs. 61 g/d, p=0.0001), while rates for non-lactating females were similar (168 g/d vs. 159 g/d, p>0.4). For non-lactating females of the CAH, summer weight gain was inversely related to July body weight (gain=0.51*July weight + 55.05, r=0.75, p=0.001), suggesting a "target" autumn weight of 107 kg (i.e., the x-intercept); lactating CAH females exhibited a similar, but not significant, response (gain=-0.13*July weight+15.77, r=0.41, p>0.16). For both lactating and non-lactating females of the PCH, summer weight gain and July weight were unrelated (p>0.7 and p>0.9, respectively), but there was a significant inverse relationship between the percentage of weight gained as protein and body protein reserves in July, independent of lactation status (pgain=-3.23*July protein + 92.7, r=0.40, p=0.0001). This suggests a "target" protein reserve of 28.7 kg. Contrasting mechanisms for replenishing body reserves are discussed in relation to differences in resource availability of the two herds.

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A model for predicting the parturition status of arctic caribou

D. Cameron¹, D. E. Russell², K. L. Gerhart¹, R. G. White¹, & J M.VerHoef³

¹ Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775
² Environment Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service, 91782 Alaska Hwy, Whitehorse, Yukon, Y1A 5B7
³ Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, 1300 College Road, Fairbanks, AK 99701

Abstract: Fecundity of female ungulates varies directly with their condition at breeding. We compared relationships between probability of parturition and autumn body weight for two herds of barren-ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti). In late September and October, 51 female caribou from the Central Arctic Herd (CAH)(1987-91) and 130 females from the Porcupine Herd (PCH)(1990-93) were darted or netted from a helicopter, weighed, and equipped with radio-collars. During the following late May and June, the same CAH females were relocated once or more, as required, by fixed-wing aircraft and classified as parturient or non-parturient based on calf presence, antler retention, and/or udder distention. For the PCH, parturition status was based on progesterone levels in blood samples taken at capture; females with concentrations >1.5 ng progesterone/ ml serum were classified as pregnant (confirmed equivalent to parturient through companion studies). Analyses were restricted to sexually mature females: those either observed with a calf or known to have calved previously. Changes in the binary parturition variable relative to autumn body weight were described using logistic regression. Models for the CAH (b_o=-7.690, b₁=0.097) and the PCH (b_o=-8.029, b₁=0.102) were significant (P=0.0251 and 0.0002, respectively) but not significantly different (p>0.8). The data were therefore pooled, and a single model was generated (b_o=-7.929, b₁=0.101; P=0.00001). Similarity of individual models for the two herds, despite differences in nutritional status and productivity, indicates that the combined model may apply to arctic herds in general.

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The Fortymile Caribou Herd: Novel Proposed Management and Relevant Biology, 1992-1997

Rodney D Boertje¹ and Craig L Gardner²

¹ Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 1300 College Road, Fairbanks, AK 99701
² Alaska Department of Fish and Game, P.O. Box 355, Tok, AK 99780

Abstract: A diverse, international Fortymile Planning Team wrote a novel Fortymile Caribou Herd Management Plan in 1995 (Boertje and Gardner 1996:Appendix A). The primary goal of this plan is to begin restoring the Fortymile Herd to its former range; >70% of the herd's former range was abandoned as herd size declined. Specific objectives call for increasing the Fortymile Herd by at least 5% to 10% annually from 1998-2002. We present baseline data here. The following points summarize herd biology relevant to management proposed by the Fortymile Planning Team: 1. Herd numbers remained relatively stable during 1990-1995 (about 22,000 to 23,000 caribou). On 21 June 1996 we counted about 900 additional caribou in the herd, probably a result of increased pregnancy rates in 1996. On 26 June 1997 we counted about 2500 additional caribou in the herd, probably a result of recruitment of the abundant 1996 calves and excellent early survival of the 1997 calves. The Team deemed that implementing management actions during a period of natural growth would be opportune. 2. Wolf and grizzly bear predation were the most important sources of mortality, despite over a decade of the most liberal regulations in the state for harvesting of wolves and grizzly bears. Wolves were the most important predator. Wolves killed between 2000 and 3000 caribou calves annually during this study and between 1000 and 2300 older caribou; 1200-1900 calves were killed from May through September. No significant differences in annual wolf predation rates on calves or adults were observed between 1994 and early winter 1997.

Reducing wolf predation was judged by the Team to be the most manageable way to help hasten or stimulate significant herd growth. To reduce wolf predation, the Team envisioned state-sponsored wolf translocations and fertility control in 15 key wolf packs during November 1997-May 2001. Also, wolf trappers were encouraged to shift their efforts to specific areas. 3. To increase social acceptance of the management plan, the Fortymile Team proposed reducing the annual caribou harvest to 150 bulls for 5 years beginning in 1996. Reducing annual harvests from 200-500 bulls ((2% of the herd, 1990-1995) to 150 bulls (<1% bulls, 1996-2000) will not result in the desired 5% to 10% annual rates of herd increase. 4. We found consistent evidence for moderate to high nutritional status in the Fortymile Herd when indices were compared with other Alaskan herds (Whitten et al. 1992; Valkenburg 1997). The single evidence for malnutrition during this study was the low pregnancy rate during 1993 following the abnormally short growing season of 1992. However, this low pregnancy rate resulted in no strong decline in Fortymile Herd numbers, as occurred in the Delta and Denali herds (Boertje et al. 1996). No significant diseases were found among Fortymile caribou. 5. Winter range can support elevated caribou numbers both in regards to lichen availability on currently used winter range and the availability of vast expanses of winter range formerly used by the herd.


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The Mystery of the Clear Creek Caribou Herd

J. Reid¹, and D. Cooley²

¹Mayo District Renewable Resources Council, P.O. Box 249, Mayo, YT YOB 1M0;

²YTG Department of Renewable Resources, Box 600, Dawson City, Yukon, YOB IGO

Abstract: The Nacho Nyak Dun (NND) First Nation, the Mayo District Renewable Resources Council (MDRRC) and the Government of Yukon are equal partners in the Integrated Wildlife Management Plan for the NND Traditional Territory. The objective of the plan is to coordinate the management of wildlife within the Traditional Territory. The plan details the current status, concerns and solutions under selected topics. One issue that arose during the planning process was that caribou in the Clear Creek area might be a separate herd from Hart River Caribou, as they are currently managed. If Clear Creek caribou are separate from Hart River, they should be managed as a small herd. If herd size is small, reported plus unreported harvest in the past has probably exceeded the sustainable limit. Woodland Caribou Herds in the Wernecke Mountains were defined following a caribou inventory in 1989, when seasonal caribou ranges were delineated using radio collar locations from 32 caribou. In order to determine if the Clear Creek caribou are a separate herd from the Hart River Caribou, the 1989 survey is being reviewed, employing both traditional knowledge of caribou range use, and wildlife survey techniques.

During the summer of 1995, 17 long term Mayo residents were interviewed. This historical information revealed that caribou have been seen in the Clear Creek area for many years, and during all seasons of the year. During the winter of 1997/8, the MDRRC conducted more interviews. Clear Creek caribou were reported to use an area between the McQuesten River and the Klondike River, south of the delineated Hart River Herd range. A 4-year inventory project was started in October of 1997. The project will determine whether Clear Creek caribou are separate from the Hart River Herd, whether range use of caribou in Clear Creek overlaps with Hart River Caribou range, and will determine the herd size and composition of both herds in order to assess safe harvesting levels. Eight radio collars were deployed in the Clear Creek area in October 1997. Three telemetry flights during the winter of 1997-98 found that these cows had not moved to the usual Hart River Herd winter range. Twenty-two more radio collars were deployed in March 1998. Blood samples were taken from the collared animals to be analyzed in conjunction with a Yukon wide caribou DNA sequencing project. DNA sequencing results will determine how related the 2 caribou populations are. Body measurements were taken to confirm local observations that Clear Creek caribou are of larger body size than Hart River caribou. In March 1998, snow depth and density measurements were taken to relate to caribou range use. Fecal samples were collected in March 1998 and will be archived.

Over the remaining period in the 4-year inventory, five telemetry flights will be flown per year to locate the 30 collared caribou and determine range use. In 1999 a census will be conducted to calculate allowable harvest levels. As well, local knowledge will continue to be summarized to enhance the understanding of these two caribou populations, and cement the use of traditional knowledge in the realm of wildlife management practices.

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Meal Patterns in Reindeer : Implications for Interpreting Feeding Behavior in Caribou

Raphaela Stimmelmayr and Robert G. White

Large Animal Research Station, Institute of Arctic Biology, P.O. Box 757000, University of Alaska Fairbanks; Fairbanks Alaska 99775-7000

Abstract: The seasonal cycle in voluntary food intake in free-ranging and ad libitum fed reindeer and caribou is a well-documented phenomena (White et al. 1984: Can .J. Anim. Sci. 64 (suppl.): 349-350) . Very little is known, however about their daily meal patterns. This information is needed to asses how feeding behavior (i.e. meal size, meal duration, and frequency ) is altered to accommodate radical intake changes ( 1.8 to 2.3 times in magnitude) between summer and winter intake. We analyzed 24-hour feeding behavior using data collected for several weeks (during early and mid winter) from individuals and groups of reindeer. Four adult non -pregnant female reindeer were used for the study. Animals were housed outdoors in a group pen at the Large Animal Research Station, University of Alaska, Fairbanks. Reindeer were fed pelleted concentrate (QTX, Alaska Feed Company, Palmer) and snow ad libitum. Individuals were rotated on a daily basis through a single feeding pen equipped with an electronic scale and 24 hour feeding activities were recorded. Sampling interval was 5 minutes. Food residues were measured daily (nearest 1 gr). To assess the influence of socialization on feeding behavior animals were observed randomly 4 times a day. Three criteria were used to define meals: minimum amount eaten (50g), maximum time during which the minimum amount must be eaten (5 min), and the minimum interval during which no feed was eaten ( >15 min < 30 min). Eating that occurs between meals is designated as nibbling. These criteria determine the initiation and termination of meals and intermeal intervals (Baile, C.A. 1975: Digestion & Metabolism in the Ruminant). Relations between variables were determined with polynomial regressions. Significance level was set a P<0.05. A total of 246 meals were analyzed. There was no evidence of social facilitation of feeding. Average meal frequency (SEM) per day were 7.4 +/- 0.33 with a range of 3-11 meals/day. There is a strong correlation between meal size and % of total number of meals (r=0.96; P< 0.001). Reindeer preferably ate small meals (50-250 grams). Meal size increased with duration of the pre-meal interval (r= 0.99; P< 0.001). We found no correlation between meal size and post-meal interval (r=0.70; P>0.05). However, the after-meal interval does not exceed on average 200 minutes, similar to data from concentrate fed sheep. This could suggest some type of underlying feeding rhythm. A possible candidate could be rumination. Resting bouts in caribou during winter have a similar duration on average 126+/-55 min during daytime bouts and 127 +/-73 min during nighttime bouts (Maier, 1996: Ecological & Physiological aspects of Caribou activity & responses to aircraft overflights). Comparison of analysies of meals for reindeer with sheep adapted to a 60% concentrate ground suggest striking similarities of feeding behavior between both species.

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Ecological Role of Hunting in Herd Dynamics and its Implications for Co-Management of Caribou

Thomas A. Hanley¹ and Donald E. Russell²,

¹US Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 2770 Sherwood Lane 2-A, Juneau, Alaska 99801-8545 USA
²Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada, Mile 91782 Alaska Hwy., Whitehorse, Yukon Y1A 5B7

Abstract: At a present population size of 160,000 animals the Porcupine Caribou Herd (PCH) has been subjected to an annual harvest rate of 2 - 4% for the last couple of decades. The sensitivity of herd dynamics to hunting was modeled as part of a US Man and the Biosphere project. The maximum number of adult cows that could be harvested without causing a subsequent decline in herd size was calculated as a function of the total number of adult cows in the herd and recruitment rate of calves to the yearling age-class. The maximum cow harvest, therefore, is a threshold below which hunting has minor effects on herd dynamics. Actual harvest in relation to theoretical maximum harvest provides a basis for prediction of herd sensitivity to hunting. Maximum harvest as a function of recruitment rate is a curvilinear relation. Herd dynamics are especially sensitive at low recruitment rates combined with low herd size. The two relations involving herd size and recruitment rate provide the basis for a monitoring system of herd dynamics and sensitivity to hunting. Herd size is best estimated by aerial census, while an index of recruitment rate can be predicted by monitoring the body condition of adult females. Body condition can be estimated on the basis of a few simple metrics measured by hunters in the field. The hunters data on body composition, combined with aerial census data on herd size, provide a useful tool for managers and co-management boards to devise policies and regulations to manage the herd. The population model and monitoring system can operate on the Internet and be accessible to all users in the villages within the PCH range.

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Caribou and people, coexistence into the future. A case study of the Carcross herd in the southern Yukon.

Katherina Egli, Robert Florkiewicz, Carol A. Domes, Gerald W. Kuzyk

Department of Renewable Resources, Government of the Yukon, PO Box 2703, Whitehorse, Yukon Territory, Canada Y1A 2C6

Abstract: The Carcross caribou herd is a small herd of 450 woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou), which ranges in the most densely populated area of the Yukon. In response to concerns about the herd's declining numbers, a community-based plan was developed in 1992 to recover the herd. As a result of the plan, Yukon hunting of the herd was stopped by regulations and voluntary compliance by First Nations. However, land use pressures on the winter range and migration corridors continue to threaten this herd. While the caribou are relatively undisturbed on alpine summer ranges, deep snow forces them into the populated lowlands for the critical winter period. Every year during spring and fall seasonal migrations, caribou are killed in vehicle collisions on highways that bisect the winter range. Land alienation by agriculture, cottage lot and residential development continue to displace caribou. Mining, forestry and unregulated fuelwood cutting can displace and disturb caribou on the winter range, and expand the network of roads and trails. Activities such as snowmobiling, ATV use, skiing, dogmushing and biking follow quickly with new access. The cumulative impacts of these activities reduces the 'effective' winter range and stresses caribou when their energy needs are most critical. Living with the Carcross caribou herd will continue to require dedicated efforts by many individuals and governments.

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Potential Value of Reindeer to Caribou in a Co-management System

Barbara Kingscote

Canadian Reindeer LTD., Kunnek Corp., General Delivery, Alix, Alberta T0C 0B0

Abstract:A privately owned herd of several thousand reindeer is managed in an open herding system in the western Arctic. This herd interfaces the Bluenose Caribou Herd, to which it could become an asset. Firstly, the reindeer are monitored annually for infectious diseases including parasites, and therefore they have potential value as sentinel animals for the early detection of diseases which may be introduced into the region from time to time. Secondly, the herd will be developed for meat production which could be used by local consumers to take the pressure off the caribou population in times of natural decline. Thirdly, gentled reindeer will introduce visitors to Rangifer and their place in the tundra biome, raising awareness of the nature of Arctic ecosystems. Principles of co-management will be applied through continuing consultation with other entrepreneurs and with all the people with whom we share the use of the land.


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Responses of the Aishihik caribou herd to reduced wolf predation and harvest restrictions: an adaptive management experiment in the Yukon.

Robert D. Hayes¹,Gerald W. Kuzyk², Richard S. Farnell²

¹Department of Renewable Resources, Box 5429, Haines Junction, Yukon, YOB 1LO
²Department of Renewable Resources, Box 2703, Whitehorse, Yukon, Y1A 2C6

Abstract: Since 1992, we have studied population responses of woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) moose (Alces alces) and Dall sheep (Ovis dalli) to a reduction of wolf (Canis lupis) numbers and harvest restrictions in the Aishihik area of southwest Yukon. We annually reduced wolf numbers in a 20,000 km² area to about 20% of the original population. Caribou hunting was closed from 1991 to present. Four caribou population parameters are being studied in both treated and untreated herds: calf recruitment, adult sex composition, population size and adult survival. Calf recruitment and adult sex composition are being compared in the treated Aishihik herd against seven untreated woodland caribou herds of similar size in the southern Yukon and along the Alaska border. Population rates of change and adult survival are being compared between the Aishihik herd and the Wolf Lake herd, an intensively studied untreated herd. We are testing for differences in the rate of increase between these two herd sizes during the past five years using stratified random quadrat survey techniques. We are also testing for differences in adult survival rates using samples of 82 radiotagged caribou in the Aishihik herd and 72 in the Wolf Lake herd.

We believe that wildlife biologists can learn from manipulations of wolf- prey systems by testing hypotheses using an experimental design approach. Large scale wolf-ungulate experiments are inherently confounded by problems with treatment interspersion, pseudoreplication error and other spatial constraints. We are attempting to solve these problems using a deductive statistical approach that best explains the nature of woodland caribou responses to wolf predation and harvest treatments.

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Shifts in the distribution of calving caribou: developing a model for assessing the impacts of development

Brad Griffith¹ and Raymond D. Cameron²

¹ US Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Alaska Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 99775-7020, USA
²Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska, 99775-7020, USA;

Abstract: Fidelity to calving grounds is the accepted standard for identifying discrete caribou (Rangifer tarandus) herds. However, quantifying variations in calving distribution has been the subject of considerable debate. We used fixed kernel analyses to estimate spatial properties of the calving distribution of the Central Arctic caribou herd (CAH), 1980-95, based on 183 calving locations from 96 radio-collared females. Size of the total calving area declined from 11,187 km2 during 1980-1985 to 6,585 km2 during 1990-95. Similarly, size of the concentrated calving area declined from 1,209 km2 during 1980-85 to 483 km2 during 1990-1995. Calving distribution was bimodal throughout 1980-95, with concentrated calving found both east and west of the Sagavanirktok River. The concentrated calving area east of the Sagavanirktok, without development infrastructures, remained relatively constant in location during 1980-1995. However, the concentrated calving area within the Kuparuk Development Area (KDA) fragmented and shifted south and west. By 1990-95, there was no concentrated calving within the KDA. We conclude that such a shift in calving distribution is the most likely response of the Porcupine caribou herd to future development within its calving ground and should serve as a basis for assessing changes in forage quantify and quality. These changes in forage can then be used to project the effects on calf survival and, hence, population growth under a hypothetical scenario of oil development.

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Effects of recent climate warming on caribou habitat and calf survival.

Brad Griffith¹ , David C. Douglas² , Donald E. Russell³ , Robert G. White⁴ , Thomas R. McCabe² , and Kenneth R. Whitten⁵

¹ US Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Alaska Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 99775-7020, USA
²US Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Alaska Biological Science Center, Anchorage, Alaska, 99503-6199, USA
³ Environment Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service, Whitehorse, Yukon Territory, Y1A 5X7, Canada
⁴ Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska, 99775-7020, USA; ⁵ Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, Alaska, 99701-1599, USA.

Abstract: Recent investigations of global climate change have focused on temperature, gas and nutrient flux, and vegetation, microbial, and invertebrate response. Potential effects of climate change on terrestrial vertebrates have been the subject of much speculation, but quantitative assessment has been limited by the lack of long term habitat and population data. As the dominant large herbivore in Arctic regions, migratory barren-ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti) are likely to respond to global climatic changes that affect temporal and spatial variability of their forage resources. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) derived from the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) on board National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) polar orbiting satellites offers the opportunity to assess large scale habitat conditions for caribou and other vertebrates during the growing season. Here we present a predictive equation relating early survival of caribou calves and NDVI at calving and the post-calving rate of increase in NDVI during 1985-1996. Because small changes (~5%) in survival of caribou calves can determine whether a population grows or declines, the relationship between calf survival and vegetation biomass and rate of vegetation growth may be used to predict effects of habitat restriction on caribou populations.

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A methodology for predicting effects of displacement on caribou populations: integrating behavior, habitat value, and population dynamics.

Brad Griffith¹, Robert G. White², Raymond D. Cameron² Donald E. Russell³, Thomas R. McCabe⁴

¹ US Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Alaska Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 99775-7020, USA
² Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska, 99775-7020, USA; ⁵ Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, Alaska, 99701-1599, USA.
³ Environment Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service, Whitehorse, Yukon Territory, Y1A 5X7, Canada
⁴US Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Alaska Biological Science Center, Anchorage, Alaska, 99503-6199, USA

Abstract: We used: 1) observed changes in calving distribution of the Central Arctic caribou herd (CAH) during a period of increasing oil development, 2) documented avoidance of development infrastructure by parturient caribou, 3) observed changes in the phenology and biomass of caribou forage during a period of climate warming, and 4) observed response in early survival of calves of the Porcupine caribou herd (PCH) to climate induced changes in forage to develop a protocol for assessing potential effects of resource development on the population level of the Porcupine caribou herd. During the period of increasing oil development, 1980-1995, concentrated calving by the CAH gradually shifted south and west until concentrated calving no longer occurred in developed areas. During the warming period, 1985-1996, the amount of forage available to PCH caribou of on 21 June was a function of plant biomass available at calving and the rate of increase in forage during the post-calving period. Similarly, early calf survival was a function of plant biomass at calving and the rate of increase in plant biomass. We shifted the calving distribution of the PCH in relation to hypothesized oil development in a manner observed on the CAH, reinventoried forage available at calving and the post-calving rate of increase inforage, and used the relationship between calf survival and plant biomass to estimate resulting calf survival. Potential effects of development was assessed by comparing estimated calf survival before and after hypothesized redistribution of calving. Potential effects during the period 1985-1990 were minimal, but from 1991 onward potential redistribution of calving caribou hammered calf survival. We will continue to refine and evaluate this model.

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Industrial development and access: Effects on movement and distribution of woodland caribou in Northern Alberta.

S. M. Wasel,¹ Simon J. Dyer² and E. H. Dzus³

¹ Alberta Pacific Forest Industries Inc., Box 8000 Boyle, Alberta T0A 0M0,
² Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E9
³ c/o Boreal Caribou Research Program, Nova Gas Transmission Ltd. ,15810 -114 Ave. Edmonton, Alberta T5M 2Z4

Abstract: Industrial development and associated road construction have been implicated as factors leading to displacement and declines of ungulates throughout North America. Forestry and petroleum development have a significant influence on the ground accessibility of many areas throughout Alberta. Woodland caribou are listed as a threatened species in Alberta and, because of this special status, have been the focus of landuse guidelines directed at industry. These guidelines evolved with the intent of minimizing exposure of caribou to human activity through: mapping of caribou zones, application of timing restrictions within some of these zones, and access management. In the absence of conclusive data, the caribou guidelines have applied a conservative approach to industry activity within these zones. A recent, intensive industrial development occurring within caribou zone provided a unique research opportunity to evaluate potential habituation or displacement of caribou. A research project was initiated in 1998 to simultaneously quantify the spatial and temporal use of this development area by humans and caribou. Linear developments (i.e. roads, pipelines) and point sources (i.e. well sites, cutblocks) are documented using a geographic information system. Traffic classifiers have also been deployed to document vehicle volume and type. Caribou movements are being intensively monitored using animal borne GPS collars (n=23). Methods of documenting caribou response and preliminary results are presented.
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Caribou of Eastern Kamchatka: Peculiarities of ecology and problem of preservation

Vladimir I. Mosolov

Kronotsky Reserve, Kamchatka, Russia

Abstract: The intensive development of mining industry in southern and central regions of the peninsula was negatively reflected in the condition of caribou of Kamchatka.

With the purpose of estimation of the present condition of caribou's population on the peninsula the author has gone through archival, literary and departmental materials for the period from 1960 to 1995, analyzed the materials of his own field researches from 1982 to 1995 .

On the example of three isolated from each other herds of caribou it is shown, how various kinds of economic activity of man negatively influence the condition of population of wild animals. If the places of caribous' wintering undergo anthropogenic influence, it leads to fast reduction of number of the animals and destruction of population.

The analysis has shown, that alongside with the natural factors of the environment( lackage of winter pastures on the peninsula, much snow, long winter), for the last 10 years negative influence of man on mountain stations of the animals has significantly increased. By this moment two territorially isolated populations of caribou in the south and northeast of the peninsula have practically stopped their existence. Only the fact that the reserved territory is quite vast made it possible to restore the number of Kronotsko- Zhupanovskoye herd of caribou: in 20 years the number of animals there became 15 times higher.

By the results of field researches estimation of influence of domestic reindeer breeding onto the population of wild animals has been commited. We have come to the conclusion, that development of domestic reindeer breeding in the places traditionally inhabited by caribou has inevitably negative consequences for populations of wild animals.

In view of the obtained results a complex of measures on restoration and preservation of the largest population of caribou on the peninsula of Kamchatka has been offered.

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Learning with Locals to Model A Future

Gary P. Kofinas

The Arctic Community Sustainability Research Team

Abstract: Native communities of the North American Arctic increasingly expect that research endeavors will address community concerns and incorporate local knowledge into research processes. While many researchers acknowledge these expectations as valid, research methods which serve to meet these objectives are currently underdeveloped. This paper presents the method used by academic researchers and native community members in a collaborative research project.

The National Science Foundationís Arctic Community Sustainability Project is a four-year, interdisciplinary study which, in part, seeks to advance our understanding of how local knowledge and science can work in tandem to address applied research questions. Of concern in the Sustainability study is how possible future changes (short- and long-term climate change, the implications of 1002 gas and oil development, and shifts in levels and types of tourism and non-local hunting) may affect life in Porcupine Caribou user communities of Canada and the United States. Consequences of possible changes on Porcupine Caribou Herd are a central focus of the study. An objective of the project is to combine local knowledge with multi-disciplinary scientific inquiry to model driving causal factors in order for researchers and locals to discuss better the implications of possible futures.

Locals of Old Crow, Aklavik, Fort McPherson, and Arctic Village participate in focus group research and complete a mapping exercise to document current-day hunting patterns and prompt local huntersí discussions about ecological conditions affecting caribou movements and distribution. An iterative process of multiple small-group interviews is used in each community in which locals and researchers together generate and refine qualitative propositions about environmental conditions affecting caribou and hunting success. Findings of former studies (e.g., harvest data, GIS displayed harvest locations, biological data, and socio-economic data on household and community sharing ) are presented to groups of hunters to prompt their interpretations of data. Propositions address a range of topics and are later to be used with researcherís findings in the development of a project synthesis model which projects change.
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Development and Application of Animal Borne Global Positioning System (GPS) Technology on Woodland Caribou

Doug Schindler ¹, Ron Rawluk ²

¹ TAEM Consultants Ltd. 190 Main Street, Selkirk, MB.
² Manitoba Hydro, T & D Design Division, 820 Taylor Avenue, Winnipeg, MB.

Abstract: In 1996, a cooperative research and development project was initiated by Manitoba Hydro in cooperation with the Maniotba Model Forest (MBMF), Manitoba Natural Resources (MNR), the University of Manitoba Natural Resources Institute (MNRI), and TAEM Consultants. The research involves the testing of Global Positioning System (GPS) Collars and mapping systems which have the potential to significantly enhance the efficiency of environmental and resource planning and mitigation. To date, over 8000 Woodland Caribou relocations have logged and mapped into a Geographic Information System, and plotted on habitat maps of various scale and precision. Preliminary observations include; the indentification of travel corridors between summer and winter range, habitat selection during various seasons, movement in relation to human disturbance, access and hydro lines. Ongoing testing of the system components is currently underway with future analysis being planned.
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Habitat Selection by Calving Caribou of the Central Arctic Herd

Scott A. Wolfe¹ , Brad Griffith¹ , Raymond Cameron² , Robert White¹ , and Steve Murphy³

¹ Alaska Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Institute of Arctic Biology, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, University of Alaska Fairbanks (SAW, BG, RGW), Fairbanks, AK 99775-7020
² Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 1300 College Road, Fairbanks, AK
³ ABR, Inc., P.O. Box 80410, Fairbanks, AK 99708 (SM).

Abstract: This poster presents the hypotheses, objective, and methods for a sudy of habitat selection by the Central Arctic caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti) herd (CAH) at calving. The CAH calves between the Colville and Canning River on the Arctic Coastal Plain, Alaska. Research has suggested a change in caribou distribution of the CAH. The primary objective of this project is to estimate how changes in distribution have influenced habitat use and selection. We will examine habitat selection of radio-collared caribou at calving. Habitat use at calving will be investigated for possible relationships with vegetation, topography, climate, development, and snow ablation on calving grounds. This study will provide further understanding of dynamic environmental and anthropogenic influences on habitat use of CAH calving caribou.
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Composition of Milk During Lactation

Robert G. White¹, Karen L. Gerhart¹, Don E. Russell² and Debbie van de Wetering²

¹ Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775
² Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada, 91782 Alaska Hwy, Whitehorse, Yukon, Y1A 5B7

Abstract: We have developed a set of criteria to determine whether a caribou is in full lactation, in the process of weaning or has just weaned her calf, based on milk composition. Criteria were derived from the analysis of 276 milk samples obtained from females of the porcupine caribou herd (PCH) and the central arctic herd (CAH) in the months of June, September, October and November. Milk composition changed markedly with date with a general increase in dry matter (DM), protein (P) and fat (F) and a decline in lactose (L) in November compared with June. These major changes include a linear increase in P with F and non-linear changes of P with L and L with DM. Independent of these relations we noted four different populations of milk chemistries, Types I...IV, following the production of colostrom. Through field observations, and those made at the Large Animal Research Station, we conclude that Type I milk typifies that for females in peak milk production, Type II for early weaning, Type III for weaning and Type IV a clear liquid produced immediately after weaning (see Table). Thus a milk sample taken in October through November can be used to diagnose a femaleís stage of the weaning process. In terminal lactation the increase in P and F is associated with a decline in L. Finally, fat is removed and the remaining clear liquid is rich in N, presumably in the form of amino acids given its sweat taste. Three to 4 weeks postpartum, 90% of 82 caribou with calves were producing Type I milk, and 10% produced Type II. Females that had lost their calves shortly after birth produced Type IV milk. By late September, 98% of 41 females with calves were producing Type II milk. Caribou with a calf at foot in November (n=99) were classified as recently weaned (Type IV; 15.1%), weaning (Type III; 48.5%) and extending lactation (Type II; 36.4%).

STAGE	TYPE	DM	LACTOSE	PROTEIN
Peak	I	20-40	>3	4-10
Early W	II	30-40	2-4	10-18
Late W	III	10-48	<2	6-20
Weaned	IV	0-10	<0.5	<7

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Status of Endangered and Threatened caribou on Canada's Arctic Islands

Anne Gunn¹, Frank L. Miller² and John Nishi³

¹Wildlife and Fisheries, Department of Resources, Wildlife and Economic Development, Yellowknife, NT
²Canadian Wildlife Service, Edmonton, AB T6B 2X3
³Wildlife and Fisheries, Department of Resources, Wildlife and Economic Development, Yellowknife, NT.

Abstract: Peary caribou Rangifer tarandus pearyi (classified as "Endangered" in 1991) have declined to an estimated 1100 caribou on the western High Arctic in 1997. This is the lowest abundance recorded since the first aerial survey in 1961 when 24 320 caribou were estimated. Caribou abundance on the eastern High Arctic is essentially unknown. Two populations of arctic-island caribou (northwest Victoria and Prince of Wales-Somerset islands) classified as "Threatened" essentially disappeared between 1980 and 1995. Three other arctic-island caribou populations may be stable or increasing. Causes of declines varies between the populations which is probably a consequence of regional variation in climate, vegetation and terrain.

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Caribou calving grounds - dogma and diversity

Anne Gunn

Wildlife and Fisheries, Department of Resources, Wildlife and Economic Development, Yellowknife, NT.

Abstract: Our knowledge for most of the 42 identified caribou calving grounds in the Northwest Territories is fragmentary but is sufficient to reveal the diversity of landscapes and vegetation communities used for calving. We (caribou biologists) frequently state that calving grounds are the most predictable areas seasonally occupied by caribou. But within the diversity of habitats used for calving there may be different models for fidelity depending on the vegetation and terrain. For three major barren-ground caribou herds in the NWT, we now have about three decades of survey information and more satellite telemetry. Individual cows calve at similar locations between years and calving grounds largely overlap between years. However over a longer time scale (decades), calving areas directionally shift and that shift may be rotational with the cows returning to areas used decades previously. The fragmentary knowledge and that calving ground locations may rotate over decades introduces uncertainty into managing land use activities on calving grounds. And in the face of uncertainty, the precautionary principle should apply to management of caribou calving grounds.

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Crater site selection by woodland caribou of the Southern Lakes herd, Yukon: differential effects of congeneric lichen species

Alejandro Frid

Boreal Research Associates, Site 20, Comp. 357, Whitehorse, YT, Y1A 4Z6, Canada

Abstract: Caribou foraging during winter on snow-buried terrestrial lichens must locate resources by scent and access them by digging craters. Previous research found that caribou select crater sites where the relative abundance of certain lichen genera is greater, and avoid cratering at sites where these genera are scarcer or absent. I expanded on previous research by proposing that congeneric lichens species have differential effects on crater site selection, and tested my hypothesis with data collected by snow-tracking woodland caribou in the Southern Lakes Region, Yukon. Results supported my hypothesis. Cratering probability increased as the percent cover of Cladina mitis became greater, but the percent cover of its close relative Cladina rangiferina had no effect. Similarly, cratering probability increased as the percent covers of Cetraria islandica and Cetraria cuculata became greater, but was unaffected by the percent cover of their close relative Cetraria nivalis. The effects of Cetraria islandica and Cetraria cuculata are noteworthy because these species were as scarce as any taxa that did not affect crater site selection (their maximum % covers were, respectively, 5 % and 22 %, and their 75 % quartile % cover was 0). In addition to testing my hypothesis, I found that cratering probability increased as the percent cover of Cladonia sp. became greater, but was unaffected by the percent covers of Peltigera sp. and Stereocaulon sp. (field personnel could not identify these genera to species). Crater site selection was unaffected by variability in snow depth or penetration, which was not surprising given the shallow snowpack of the study area (mean SD snow depth = 31.5 5.8 cm). I found almost no correlations among the percent covers of each lichen taxa, suggesting that the number of craters a caribou must dig, and thus the area it needs to search, will increase with the number of lichen species it is searching for. My results suggest that management decisions based on the distribution of lichen genera, rather than species, could underestimate the amount of land that should be protected to ensure the long-term persistence of a caribou population. Also, protecting areas where Cetraria islandica, Cetraria cuculata, Cladina mitis and Cladonia sp. are abundant likely will contribute towards conserving the Southern Lakes Herd, which is endangered partly because of habitat loss. Research needed to refine conservation recommendations includes comparative nutritional analysis of lichen species, addressing the effects of species of Cladonia on cratering probability, and landscape-level analysis of foraging decisions and of lichen distributions.

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Determination of the Genetic Relationships Between Yukon Woodland Caribou Populations by DNA Typing using Microsatellites

Curtis Strobeck¹, Keri Zittlau¹, John Coffin¹, Richard Farnell² and Gerald Kuzyk²

¹Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB,T6G 2E9
²Department of Renewable Resources, Box 2703, Whitehorse, YK, Y1A 2C6

Abstract: Woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) herds are defined as a group of caribou that share a common winter range, geographically separated from neighboring herds. The distinctness of and the genetic relationship between herds was tested by DNA genotyping (DNA fingerprinting) of a number of individuals in each herd. A collection of whole blood samples from the Aishihik, Burwash, Chisana and Wolf Lake caribou herds began in the Yukon in 1995 with a long term goal to determine genetic relationships between all known herds. The DNA fingerprinting was done using a panel of eight microsatellite loci. Total DNA isolated from each blood sample wasamplified at the eight loci using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Allele sizes for each locus were determined by analysis of the PCR products using an Applied Biosystems automated sequencer fitted with Genescan. Analyses of the genotypes (DNA fingerprints) were made to determine the genetic relationships between the herds. In addition, an assignment test, which assigns each individual to the herd in which its genotype is most likely to occur, was performed to determine how distinct were the herds. These data were then compared to existing radio-collar movement data.

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Behaviour and Human Disturbance

Norma Kassi

7 Cronkhite Road, Whitehorse,YT

Abstract:The Porcupine Caribou Herd is an ancient relative that the Gwitchin people have relied on for food for thousands of years. They have lived in harmony with the caribou since time immemorial. With the rapid increase of technology and roads the caribou certainly feel the effects of human disturbances. Where there is human activity, other life forms will always be affected. Many factors come into play depending on the type of species, it's resiliency, and its role in nature.

The building of the Dempster Highway has affected the caribou. Although their have been few road kills, increased traffic has resulted in an increased mortality rate. Overzealous hunters also have greater access to the caribou that cross at points on the Dempster. Earlier studies and First Nation's observations indicate that the caribou are hesitant about crossing the highway where hunting has occurred.

Although the herd is healthy there is one major human threat to their survival. Oil development in the crucial '1002' calving grounds in Alaska could seriously harm the herd. Disturbance to the cows who calve in the Refuge could disrupt their calving patterns causing a decline in herd numbers.

The Porcupine Caribou Management Board in cooperation with First Nation governments and environmental groups has been actively lobbying for permanent protection of the Refuge for over ten years. So far we have been very successful however, it is very important that the U.S. Congress protect the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge from any development. In order for them to do that it is very important that Canada do its part in protecting the caribou. They need to seriously reconsider re-opening the oil-caps in the wintering grounds of the Porcupine Caribou herd.

Another human disturbance factor are aircraft that fly low over caribou. They become alarmed resulting in panic and confusion. In panic, the calves have become separated from their mothers. This has resulted in more deaths due to starvation and predators. Caribou are also vulnerable to the noises of snow machines.

There has been a lot of monitoring of the herd since the 1950s. Biologists have monitored Porcupine caribou body condition year after year. The calves have been studied for their mortality rates. Radio collars have been used to track the caribou over the years. We, as First Nations people hold tremendous amounts of knowledge pertaining to the caribou as well as the migration routes of the herd.

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Why wolves cannot regulate the Porcupine caribou herd: A predation rate model

Robert D. Hayes¹ and Don Russell²

¹Department of Renewable Resources, Box 5429, Haines Junction, Yukon, YOB 1LO
² Canadian Wildlife Service, 91782 Alaska Hwy., Yukon, Y1A 5B7

Abstract: Large migratory caribou herds in the Arctic can exhibit wide population shifts that have been explained by changes in forage, regional climate, predation and over-harvest. We constructed a time and space dependent model (TSP_annual ) to estimate annual wolf (Canis lupus) predation rate (P_annual ) on the Porcupine caribou herd (PCH), that adjusts predation seasonally depending on caribou distribution:

P_annual = K_daily* W *A_p(2)*D_p

In our model we assumed that wolves killed caribou at a constant rate (K_daily, 0.08 caribou wolf ¹ day¹) based on our studies and elsewhere; that wolf density (W) doubled to 6 wolves 1000 km^2-1 on all seasonal ranges; and that the average area occupied by the PCH in eight seasonal life cycle periods (D_p , days) was two times greater than the area described by the outer boundaries of satellite telemetry data (A_p /1000 km² ). From the TSP_annual model, we estimated that wolves killed about 7,600 caribou each year, about four to five percent of present PCH population size; 84% were killed during fall and winter when seasonal ranges are largest, exposing more caribou to wolf predation.

Our predation rate model suggests that the separation of winter and summer ranges, whether as an anti-predatory strategy or to ensure optimal foraging, effectively releases migratory caribou from predator regulation.

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Status and Conservation of Forest-dwelling Caribou in Canada

Bruce Petersen, Tony Iacobelli and James Kushny

World Wildlife Fund Canada

Abstract: The World Wildlife Fund Canada believesthat the conservation of forest-dwelling woodland caribou in Canada may be promoted by the production of a national map showing their range occupancy and status across the country. The 'draft' map presented is a compilation of data collected for each provincial jurisdiction from available sources. This 'best-estimate' representation highlights significant gaps.

The mapping project undertaken by Northwestern Ontario is referenced as a case study of an excellent mapping strategy. Could this be the basis for a consistent approach to mapping the entire Canadian range of forest-dwelling caribou?

The role of caribou as an indicator of boreal ecosystem health is raised. The importance of protected areas is visited along with the need for connecting corridors between protected areas and careful habitat management of the intervening landscape.

Finally, the need for a national strategy of conservation is proposed and discussion regarding the formulation of this stragegy is promoted. In this regard consideration is given to the best way of achieving consistency of approach while leaving latitude for adaptations to meet ecological variations.

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Estrous Synchronization and Early Pregnancy

Rowell, J.E.¹, Russell, D. E.², White,R.G.² and Sasser, R.G.³

¹ Large Animal Research Station, Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Alaska, 99709
² Environment Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service, 91782 Alaska Hwy, Whitehorse, Yukon Y1A 5B7
³ Dept. of Animal Science, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83843.

Abstract: Previously, in a subsample of wild Porcupine caribou, blood samples collected at approximately 20-41 days post breeding, were postitive for Pregnancy Specific Protein B (PSPB) but had baseline progesterone levels. This same group of females were also in very poor body condition leading to the interpretation that the cows conceived but underwent early embryonic loss (Russell, Gerhart, White & van de Wetering. 1998. J. Wildl. Manage. In Press.). The objective of this study was to validate the use of combined progesterone and PSPB as an indicator of early embryonic loss and to characterize the behavior of PSPB protein in caribou/reindeer plasma. We report here the preliminary progesterone results.

At the Large Animal Research Station, UAF, 7 caribou and 7 reindeer were administered prostaglandin 5 days after antler cleaning, to synchronize estrus, and again 7 weeks later to abort the embryo. After the first injection the cows were penned with bulls for 5 days. Blood samples were collected twice weekly for 11 weeks from these cows and from 5 non-bred, non-injected control cows (3 reindeer, 2 caribou) . All blood was assayed for progesterone.

Two of 7 reindeer and 4 of 7 caribou became pregnant. The remaining 8 animals failed to come into first estrus prior to harem formation. The non-bred animals underwent a small short cycle followed by 2-3 regular 21 day estrous cycles. In all pregnant animals, progesterone remained elevated, declining immediately to baseline (O.5 ng/ml) upon prostaglandin injection. All these cows returned to estrus.

Prostaglandin is an effective luteolysin in Rangifer when a corpus luteum is present. The failure to synchronize estrus in 8 females appears to be a consequence of late onset of estrus activity. We know that rising estradiol is responsible for antler cleaning in female Rangifer. However, the association of antler cleaning with onset of estrus was variable in this study. The late onset of estrus may be a consequence of keeping the females separated from bulls.

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Surviving in the north - A conceptual model of reproductive strategies in arctic caribou

D. E. Russell¹ and R. G. White²

¹Environment Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service, 91782 Alaska Hwy., Whitehorse, Yukon Y1A 5B7, Canada
²Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK, 99775-7020, USA

Abstract: Arctic and sub-arctic Rangifer populations have evolved in an environment characterized by long, cold winters and short growing seasons. Available resources, such as digestible nitrogen, are limited in time and space. Post parturient females must balance the requirement to replenish protein and fat reserves depleted during the winter with producing sufficient high quality milk to ensure over winter survival of her calf. This trade-off manifests itself in the allocation of energy above maintenance and activity, the partitioning of protein and fat deposition and the timing of weaning. From sequential captures of over 200 individual caribou between 1992 and 1994, the authors developed a conceptual model to evaluate implications of resource allocation to population dynamics in Rangifer.
Post-natal Weaning occurs when plant biomass during the first week in June, and rate of plant growth over the next three weeks, are insufficient to maintain growth rates in the calf (see Griffith et al, this meeting). Upon weaning the calf dies. The cow increases in body weight and potential pregnancy (Gerhart et al 1997.J.Zool.242,17-30) and birth rate (Cameron & Ver Hoef 1994.J.Wildl.Manage.58,674-679).
Summer Weaning, from our observations, occurs when cow protein reserves fail to be replenished. The most likely cause is accidental injury or disease in the cow as we consider nitrogen availability not limiting in the summer range of the Porcupine Caribou Herd (PCH). Upon weaning the calf dies. An increase in pregnancy rate is likely for the cow.
Early-autumn Weaning occurs when the fat reserves of the cow are below a specified threshold primarily due to a combination of the factors listed above and a particularly bad insect year. The survival rate of the calf declines and the age of first reproduction of the calf is likely advanced. For the cow this strategy increases her chance of pregnancy and enhances her survival through winter.
Extended lactation is common in the PCH (Gerhart et al 1997. Ibid) and is associated with low fat reserves in the calf at or about early winter. As a consequence, the cow suffers reduced probability of pregnancy due to "lactational infertility" but increases the survival of her calf. Weaning is assumed for the following spring-summer.
Normal weaning, which is initiated during the rut, results in high pregnancy rates for the cow. In this latter case both cow and calf have healthy levels of fat and protein reserves.

The implication of these strategies is discussed in relation to industrial development and climate change, a potential challenge to Rangifer herds throughout the circumpolar north.

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Wild Caribou of North America Learning Resource

Remy Rodden and Darielle Talarico

Abstract: Although many excellent resources are already available for teachers and K-12 students, there is no concise, comprehensive learning/activity guide on caribou. The Wild Caribou of North America Learning Resource is a new educational initiative of the Department of Renewable Resources, Yukon Government. This new resource will be based on the successful Project WILD model, and draw on the best of existing materials. Emphasis will be on ecosystem management techniques, using the caribou species to illustrate a broad range of ecological concepts. Cultural importance will also be highlighted.